STATE  NORMAL  SCHi 

LOS  A?;,F.    .'S,  CALI*/ 


THE  TRAINING  OF   TEACHERS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •   BOSTON  •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


THE 

TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

FOR 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY 
AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 

2  "i  7SQ 

BY 
JOHN   FRANKLIN   BROWN,  PH.D. 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  AMERICAN  HIGH  SCHOOL  " 


Nefo  gorfe 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1911 

All  rtghts  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1911, 
Bv  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  elect  retyped.     Published  January,  1911. 


XortoooD  $)ra» 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


Education 
Library 

LB 


PREFACE 

IT  is  just  one  hundred  years  since  Prussia  consciously 
and  seriously  faced  the  problem  of  providing  adequate 
training  for  the  teachers  of  her  higher  schools  and,  under 
the  leadership  of  William  von  Humboldt,  sketched  the 
broad,  statesmanlike  policy  which  it  has  been  the  work 
of  a  century  to  develop.  The  specific  forms  which  the 
problem  has  taken  at  different  times  within  this  period 
find  striking  analogy  in  the  United  States  to-day.  We 
cannot  adopt  in  toto  German  means  and  methods, — 
the  social  and  political  ideals  of  the  two  nations  are  so 
different  as  to  make  such  action  impossible  even  if  it 
were  desirable;  but  we  can  carefully  study  them  and 
adapt  them  to  our  needs,  thus  profiting  by  the  century 
of  thought  and  experience  which  have  made  the  German 
schools  the  most  famous  hi  the  world. 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  book,  first,  to  describe  as  con- 
cretely as  possible  the  standards  and  institutions  which 
exist  in  Germany  to-day  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 
the  higher  or  secondary  schools,  giving  enough  of  their 
history  to  show  their  evolution  during  the  past  century ; 
second,  in  the  light  of  Germany's  experience,  to  discuss 
a  standard  and  a  plan  for  the  training  of  teachers  in 
American  high  schools. 


VI  PREFACE 

The  material  for  Part  I  was  largely  gathered  in  1909 
while  I  was  serving  as  exchange  teacher  of  English  in  the 
Oberrealschule  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  at  Halle 
a.  S.  The  courtesy  of  German  officials  and  educators 
in  furnishing  assistance  and  information  left  nothing  to 
be  desired.  While  I  cannot  name  them  all  on  account 
of  the  number,  I  wish  to  express  my  obligations  to  them 
and  my  hearty  appreciation  of  their  kindness.  I  should 
be  ungrateful,  however,  if  I  did  not  mention  specifically 
Dr.  Wilhelm  Fries,  Director  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftun- 
gen, Director  of  the  Gymnasial  Seminar,  and  Professor 
of  Pedagogy  in  the  University  of  Halle,  whose  schol- 
arly writings,  personal  kindness,  and  professional  inter- 
est in  my  report  were  invaluable.  Without  his  unfailing 
assistance  the  work  in  its  present  form  would  have  been 
impossible.  I  am  also  indebted  to  several  English  and 
American  friends  who  have  given  valuable  suggestions 
in  connection  with  Part  II  and  the  Appendix. 

J.  F.  B. 

NEW  YORK, 
November,  1910. 


CONTENTS 

PART   I  — THE  TRAINING   OF  GERMAN 
TEACHERS 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS 

PAGE 

Elementary  Schools 4 

Higher  Schools 7 

CHAPTER   II 

THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS  IN  PRUSSIAN  HIGHER 
SCHOOLS 

Before  1810 20 

The  Edict  of  1810 21 

Provisions  prevailing  in  1831 25 

Regulations  of  1866 28 

Regulations  of  1887 31 

Regulations  of  1890 33 

Regulations  of  1898 33 

Lines  of  Development 72 

CHAPTER   III 
INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

The  University 75 

A.  The  University  as  a  Whole 75 

B*  The  Theological-philological-pedagogical  Seminar  .  76 
C,  The  Pedagogical  Seminar .82 

The  Gymnasial  or  Higher-school  Seminar  .  .  .  .112 
A.  The  Royal  Pedagogical  Seminar  in  Berlin  .  .  .112 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

PACK 

B.  The  Pedagogical  Seminar  of  the  Franckesche  Stift- 

ungen 115 

C.  Other  Modern  Seminars 143 

The  Probejahr 144 

A.  Candidates  in  the  Seminarium  Prceceptorum      .         .     145 

B.  General  Regulations 146 

CHAPTER   IV 

OPINION  AND  PRACTICE 

The  Study  of  Education  in  the  University       ....     149 

The  Practical  Pedagogical  Seminar  in  the  University       .         .167 
The  Gymnasial  Seminar          .         .         .         .         .         .         .172 

Length  of  Period  of  Practical  Training 180 

CHAPTER  V 
STANDING  OF  THE  TEACHER  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

Professionally 183 

Financially      ..........     184 

Socially 187 

CHAPTER   VI 
IMPRESSIONS  OF  THE  GERMAN  SYSTEM 

General  Academic  Training 189 

Theoretical  Pedagogical  Training  in  the  University         .         .192 
The  State  Examination  (Staatsexameri)  .         .         .         .194 

The  Seminarjahr 195 

The  Probejahr 200 

PART  II  — THE  TRAINING  OF  AMERICAN 
TEACHERS 

CHAPTER  VII 
THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  AMERICAN  TEACHERS 

The  Sphere  of  the  American  Secondary  School        .         .         .     207 
Standards  of  Certification  in  the  Different  States     .        .         .     208 


CONTENTS  IX 

PACK 

The  Qualifications  of  Secondary  School  Teachers   .         .         .  232 

The  Need  of  Higher  Standards 234 

CHAPTER  VIII 
INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS 

Normal  Schools       .........  236 

The  College  as  a  Whole 237 

Departments  and  Schools  of  Education 237 

CHAPTER   IX 
WHO  is  RESPONSIBLE  ? 

The  Responsibility  of  the  State 244 

The  Responsibility  of  the  Individual  Teacher          .         .         .  249 
The  Responsibility  of  the  College  and  University    .         .         .251 

The  Responsibility  of  School  Authorities         ....  252 

CHAPTER  X 
A  DESIRABLE  STANDARD  OF  TRAINING 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seventeen 256 

The  Period  of  Training 259 

Academic  Training 261 

Theoretical  Professional  Training 263 

Practical  Professional  Training 263 

CHAPTER  XI 
A  PLAN  FOR  PROVIDING  THE  DESIRED  TRAINING 

General  Academic  Training  should  be  Organized     .         .         .  266 
Theoretical  Professional  Training   should  be   more  General 

and  of  Higher  Grade 267 

Practical  Professional  Training 268 

State  Supervision    .........  275 

The  State  Examination  ........  276 

The  Life  Certificate 277 

Summary  of  Plan 278 


X  CONTENTS 

PAOK 

Advantages  of  the  Plan 279 

Objections  to  the  Plan 283 

The  College  or  University  Demonstration  School    .        .        .     286 

CHAPTER  XII 
CONCLUSION 288 

APPENDIX 

A  Brief  Account  of  the  Training  of  Secondary  School  Teach- 
ers in  Austria,  Finland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway, 
France,  England,  and  Scotland 293 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 327 


PART  I 
THE  TRAINING  OF   GERMAN  TEACHERS 


THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 
FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

IN    GERMANY    AND    THE    UNITED    STATES 

CHAPTER  I 
•2.175& 

PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS  l 

IN  Germany  as  in  the  United  States  each  individual 
state  has  its  own  school  system;  but  unlike  our  state 
control,  that  of  Germany  is  thoroughgoing  and  exhaus- 
tive. Especially  is  this  true  in  Prussia,  where  it  often 
extends  to  the  most  minute  details.  It  is  exercised 
through  ministries  at  Berlin,  which  are  directly  under 
control  of  the  crown. 

Aside  from  the  universities  and  the  distinctly  profes- 
sional and  vocational  schools,  which  are  not  included  in 
this  discussion,  the  schools  of  Prussia  consist  of  two 
rather  sharply  separated  divisions.  The  first  division 
includes  those  schools  which  are  designed  to  train  the 
children  of  the  laboring  and  the  lower  business  classes 
and  may  be  named  elementary.  The  second  division 

1  There  are  some  differences  between  the  schools  of  Prussia  and  those 
of  the  other  German  states,  but  the  former  may  be  regarded  as  typical 
of  German  schools. 


4      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


Elementary   school   di- 
vision: 


includes  the  so-called  higher  or  secondary  schools,  which 
are  designed  to  train  those  who  are  to  enter  the  univer- 
sities and  those  who  are  to  serve  as  lower  state  officials  or 
as  representatives  o£  the  larger  business  life.  The  two 
parts  of  the  system  may  be  represented  as  follows :  — 

Volksschule, 
Mittelschule, 
.  Fortbildungsschule. 

Vorschule, 

Gymnasium, 

Realgymnasium, 

Oberrealschule, 

Reform-gymnasium  and    Re- 

formrealgymnasium, 
Progymnasium, 
Realprogymnasium, 
Realschule, 
Hohere     Madchenschule     or 

Tochterschule, 
Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium, 

and  Oberrealschule  for  girls, 
Frauenanstalt, 
Lehrerinnenseminar. 

Elementary  Schools.  —  The  Volksschule  is  the  school 
for  the  children  of  the  lower  classes,  including  mainly 
laborers  and  the  small  business  people.  It  is  entirely 


Higher     or     secondary 
school  division: 


PRUSSIAN   SCHOOLS  5 

free  and  in  necessitous  cases  books  and  clothing  are 
furnished  the  children.  Attendance  upon  it  is  abso- 
lutely required  from  the  age  of  six  to  fourteen  unless 
the  child  attends  some  other  school  or  receives  satis- 
factory private  instruction.  The  subjects  taught  are 
reading,  writing,  spelling,  arithmetic,  history,  geography, 
drawing,  gymnastics,  singing,  and  religion.  Every  de- 
tail of  the  ordinary  Volksschule  is  regulated  by  the 
ministry  of  education.  The  management  of  the  Hilfs- 
schule,  or  auxiliary  school,  a  new  and  special  depart- 
ment of  the  Volksschule  for  backward  and  incompetent 
children,  is  left  largely  to  the  director  and  teachers. 

The  Mittelschule  is  organically  very  similar  to  the 
Volksschule,  the  principal  difference  being  that  French 
and  English  are  taught  and  the  course  is  often  one  year 
longer.  The  real  difference  between  it  and  the  Volks- 
schule lies  in  the  fact  that  the  pupils  attending  it  come 
from  distinctly  better  homes  and  are  superior  in  intelli- 
gence and  ambition.  In  its  spirit  and  in  the  quality  of 
the  work  done  it  is  more  like  the  Realschule  than  the 
Volksschule.  A  tuition  fee  of  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
dollars  per  year  is  required.  It  is  patronized  by  the  lower 
middle  classes,  especially  the  tradespeople.  Not  more 
than  one  twentieth  as  many  pupils  are  found  in  the 
Mittelschule  as  in  the  Volksschule.  The  Mittelschule  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  earlier  Burgerschule  and,  in  its 
present  form,  is  a  relatively  recent  development.  Con- 


6        TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

ditions  for  its  management  have  not  yet  been  definitely 
prescribed  by  the  ministry,  and  each  director  is  given 
large  freedom  in  the  control  and  management  of  his  own 
school.  When  the  collective  experience  of  these  men 
seems  sufficient  to  form  a  satisfactory  basis  for  expert 
judgment,  a  detailed  program  of  procedure  will  prob- 
ably be  issued  by  the  ministry  for  the  management 
of  the  Mittelschule.  At  present  it  is  rejoicing  hi  ite 
freedom. 

The  Fortbildungsschule  takes  the  boys  and  some  of  thf 
girls  when  they  have  finished  the  work  of  the  VolksschuL 
and  the  Mittelschule  and  gives  them  instruction  in  sub- 
jects connected  with  trade  or  business.  Attendance  for 
girls  is  voluntary,  for  boys  it  is  usually  required  sit 
hours  per  week  until  they  are  seventeen  years  old.  Many 
of  these  boys  and  girls  are  already  serving  as  appren- 
tices in  trade  or  business,  and  their  employers  are  re- 
quired to  allow  them  time  in  the  afternoon  or  even*  g 
to  attend  their  classes.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  scru  ol 
not  to  duplicate  but  to  supplement  the  instruction 
by  the  employer,  thus  rendering  the  apprentice  more 
efficient  than  he  would  otherwise  be.  Every  means  is 
used  to  make  the  work  of  the  pupil  directly  helpful  in  his 
chosen  vocation.  Instructors  are  chosen  from  the  ranks 
of  Volksschule  and  Mittelschule  teachers  and  from  com- 
petent mechanics  and  tradespeople.  The  work  of  the 
Fortbildungsschule,  like  that  of  the  Mittelschule,  is  now 


PRUSSIAN  SCHOOLS  7 

left  largely  to  the  discretion  of  the  director  and  his  local 
advisers.  The  establishment  of  a  Fortbildungsschule 
is  optional  with  local  school  authorities,  but  an  imperial 
decree  requires  that  if  one  is  established,  the  employers  of 
boys  and  girls  for  whom  it  is  intended  must  give  them 
opportunity  to  attend  it. 

Higher  Schools.  —  The  Vorschule  is  an  elementary 
school,  so  far  as  its  work  is  concerned,  but  it  is  ranked 
with  the  higher  schools  because  it  is  preparatory  to  them, 
and  it  is  usually  connected  with  a  higher  school.  Boys 
enter  it  at  six,  and  the  course  is  three  years  in  length. 
The  subjects  taught  are  the  same  as  those  in  the  first 
three  years  of  the  Volksschule,  but  they  are  taught  with 
reference  to  the  needs  of  the  boy  when  he  shall  enter 
the  higher  school.  The  greater  ability  and  higher  ambi- 
tions of  pupils  make  possible  a  much  better  grade  of 
work.  It  is  possible  for  pupils  to  enter  the  higher 
schools  from  the  Volksschule  or  the  Mittelschule,  but 
nearly  all  of  them  go  by  way  of  the  Vorschule.  • 

The  higher  schools,  of  which  the  Gymnasium  is  the 
oldest  form,  lead  to  the  university,  and  their  graduates 
are  given  certain  social  and  vocational  privileges.  The 
history  of  the  Gymnasium  goes  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  For  a  long  time  it  held  sway  alone. 
The  Realgymnasium  and  the  Oberrealschule  first  ap- 
peared some  two  hundred  years  later,  and,  in  their  pres- 
ent form,  they  are  creations  of  the  last  quarter  of  the 


8      TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

nineteenth  century.  In  Prussia  in  1908  there  were 
332  Gymnasien  with  101,094  pupils,  124  Realgymnasien 
with  37,683  pupils,  75  Oberrealschulen  with  30,702  pupils, 
and  171  Realschulen  with  33,465  pupils.1  The  Gymna- 
sium has  fought  hard  to  maintain  its  supremacy,  but 
the  Realgymnasium  and  the  Oberrealschule  are  slowly 
gaining  on  it.  Since  1900  the  three  schools  have  been 
legally  equal  in  rights,  but  practically  the  prestige  of  the 
Gymnasium  remains  greater  because  of  the  influence  of 
tradition  and  the  preference  given  it  by  many  educators. 
The  higher  classes  still  prefer  to  send  their  boys  to  a 
Gymnasium.  The  great  majority  of  higher  schools  of 
all  kinds  are  public  day  schools.  The  relatively  few 
private  boarding  and  day  schools  conform  to  state  re- 
quirements so  far  as  quantity,  quality,  and  kind  of  work 
are  concerned.  The  course  of  study  of  the  Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium,  and  Oberrealschule  is  nine  years  in 
length.  Pupils  usually  enter  at  nine  and  leave  at  eight- 
een, although  some,  requiring  more  time  to  complete  the 
work,  remain  till  they  are  twenty.  There  are  no  sharp 
limitations  with  reference  to  age.  In  Prussia  the  course 
of  study  for  each  of  the  higher  schools  is  prescribed  by 
the  ministry.  A  boy  is  at  liberty  to  choose  which  kind 
of  school  he  will  enter;  but,  once  he  has  chosen,  he  is 
required  to  pursue  the  curriculum  prescribed  for  that 
school.  With  slight  exception  in  the  Gymnasium,  he 

^ahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen,  XXX,  2,  146. 


PRUSSIAN   SCHOOLS 


can  secure  other  subjects  only  by  taking  them  as  extras, 
and  the  average  boy  finds  the  prescribed  curriculum 
so  heavy  that  he  attempts  nothing  more.  Election 
is  practically  limited  to  the  choice  between  schools,  and 
for  pupils  who  live  in  a  community  in  which  but  one 
kind  of  school  is  available,  there  is  really  no  choice. 
The  prescribed  curricula  for  the  Prussian  Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium,  and  Oberrealschule  for  boys  are  as 
follows1: — 

CURRICULUM  OF  BOYS'  GYMNASIUM 


CLASS 

VI 

V 

IV 

UIH 

OIH 

UH 

on 

UI 

01 

TOTAL 

Religion  .     . 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German  and 

3  ) 

2  ^ 

history 

I  4 

>3 

3 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

26 

stories 

i  J 

I  J 

Latin 
Greek      . 

8 

8 

8 

8 
6 

8 
6 

7 
6 

II 

\l 

H 

68 
36 

French    . 

— 

— 

4 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

20 

History   . 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I* 

17 

Geography 

2 

2 

2 

I 

I 

I 

J 

J 

J 

9 

Arithmetic, 

algebra, 

and  geom- 

etry     .     . 
Natural 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

1 

4] 

4] 

4] 

34 

sciences    . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2j 

2  J 

2  J 

2  J 

18 

Writing  .     . 

2 

2 

— 

— 

— 



— 

— 

4 

Drawing 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 





— 



8 

Total    . 

25 

25 

2Q 

30 

30 

3° 

30 

30 

30 

259 

Required,  in  addition,  3  hours  gymnastics  for  all  classes  and  2  hours  singing  for 

classes  VI  and  V. 
Optional,  in  addition,  from  UII  on,  2  hours  drawing;    from  Oil  on,  2  hours 

English  and  2  hours  Hebrew. 


1  Lehrplane  und  Lehraufgaben  fur  die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen. 


10      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


Special  instruction  in  writing  is  prescribed  for  pupils  in  IV  and  III  whose  hand- 

writing is  poor. 
In  the  three  higher  classes  (Oil,  UI,  and  01),  English  may  be  substituted  for 

French,  the  French  remaining  as  an  optional  subject  with  2  hours  per 

week. 
For  Greek  in  UIII,  Om,  and  UII,  may  be  substituted  English  3  hours  per  week 

for  each  year,  and  in  UIII  and  OIII  2  hours  French  and  i  hour  mathe- 

matics;  in  UII   i  hour  French  and   2  hours  mathematics  and  natural 

science. 
01,  or  Oberprima,  is  the  highest  class;  VI,  or  Sexta,  the  lowest.     UI  is  called 

Unterprima;  OTi,Obersecunda;  UII,  Untersecunda;  OHI,  Obertertia; 

Untertertia;  IV,  Quarta;  V,  Quints. 


CURRICULUM   OF   BOYS'   REALGYMNASIUM 


CLASS 

VI 

V 

rv 

uni 

OIII 

un 

on 

UI 

01 

TOTAL 

Religion    .     .     . 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German  and  his- 
tory stories     . 

\\< 

l}> 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

28 

Latin   .... 
French 

8 

8 

7 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

49 

2ft 

English     .     .     . 

— 

— 

3 

3 

3 

3, 

3 

3. 

*y 
18 

History     .    .    . 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2l 

3 

3 

3 

17 

Geography    .     . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

i) 

ii 

Arithmetic,  alge- 

bra, and  geom- 

etry      .     .     . 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

43 

Natural  sciences 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

5 

5 

5 

29 

Writing    .    .    . 

2 

2 







4 

Drawing  .     .     . 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 

Total      .     . 

25 

25 

29 

30 

30 

30 

31 

31 

31 

262 

Required,  in  addition,  3  hours  gymnastics  for  all  classes  and  2  hours  singing  for 
classes  VI  and  V. 

Optional,  in  addition,  from  OHI  on,  2  hours  linear  drawing. 

Special  instruction  in  writing  is  prescribed  for  pupils  in  IV  and  HI  whose  hand- 
writing is  poor. 


PRUSSIAN   SCHOOLS 


II 


CURRICULUM  OF  BOYS'  OBERREALSCHULE 


CLASS 

VI 

V 

IV 

uni 

OIII 

UII 

OH 

UI 

OI 

TOTAL 

Religion    .     .    . 
German  and  his- 
tory stories 
French      .    .    . 
English     .    .     . 
History     .     .    . 
Geography    .     . 
Arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, and  geom- 
etry      .     .     . 
Natural  sciences 
Writing     .     .     . 
Free-hand  draw- 
ing   .... 

!J> 

6 

2 

5 

2 
2 

2 

5}' 

6 

2 

5 

2 
2 

2 

2 

4 
6 

3 

2 

6 

2 
2 

2 

2 

3 
6 
5 

2 
2  . 

6 

2 

2 

2 

3 
6 

2 

3 

'} 

2 

4 

4} 

2 

4 

41 

2 

4 

4I 

19 

34 

47 
25 
18 
14 

47 
36 
6 

16 

2 
2 

5 

4 

2 

2 

I 

5 
6 

2 

3 

i 

6 

2 

3 

i 

5 
6 

2 

3 

i 

5 
6 

2 

Total      .     . 

25 

25 

29 

30 

3° 

30 

31 

31 

31 

262 

Required,  in  addition,  3  hours  gymnastics  for  all  classes  and  2  hours  singing  for 

classes  VI  and  V. 

Optional,  in  addition,  from  OHI  on,  2  hours  linear  drawing. 
Special  instruction  in  writing  is  prescribed  for  pupils  in  HI  whose  handwriting 

is  poor. 

Choice  between  theGymnasium,  theRealgymnasium,  and 
the  Oberrealschule  must  be  made  for  the  boy  when  he  is  not 
more  than  nine  years  old,  otherwise  he  will  be  at  a  disad- 
vantage in  the  rearrangement  of  his  work  if  he  changes  from 
one  to  the  other.  The  manifest  objections  to  this  require- 
ment have  given  rise  to  schools  known  as  the  Reformgym- 
nasium  and  Reformrealgymnasium.  The  subjects  pursued 
in  the  reform  schools  are  the  same  as  those  required  in  the 
others  of  similar  name,  but  the  arrangement  and  grouping 
are  such  that  final  decision  concerning  the  course  to  be 
taken  can  be  deferred  to  the  age  of  twelve.  French  takes 


12   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

the  place  of  Latin  in  the  earlier  years,  and  the  number 
of  hours  of  Latin  is  correspondingly  increased  during 
the  later  years  of  the  course. 

The  Progymnasium,  Realprogymnasium,  and  Real- 
schule  are  schools  in  which  only  the  first  six  years'  work 
of  the  nine-year  course  is  given.  They  are  found  in 
those  cities  which  are  unable  to  support  the  full  course. 
In  some  cases  the  arrangement  of  the  work  is  slightly 
changed  from  that  prescribed  for  the  nine-year  course, 
but  it  is  always  possible  for  a  boy  to  go  from  the  six- 
year  school  to  the  corresponding  nine-year  school  and 
complete  the  course  in  the  regular  time.  These  six-year 
schools  have  prospered  especially  because  of  the  fact 
that  boys  who  have  satisfactorily  passed  the  examina- 
tion required  for  the  leaving  certificate  are  given  the 
much-coveted  privilege  of  serving  but  one  year  in  the 
army  and  of  entering  upon  the  career  of  an  officer  in 
case  they  choose  the  army  as  a  profession. 

The  higher  Madchenschule  (also  called  Tochterschule) 
for  girls  is  a  ten-year  institution,  covering  the  years  from 
six  to  sixteen.  For  some  time  the  nine-year  school  and 
the  ten-year  school  existed  together,  the  former  being 
considered  the  standard,  the  latter  an  experimental  de- 
viation from  it ;  but  the  number  of  ten-year  schools 
rapidly  increased,  and  in  1908  this  type  was  officially 
recognized  as  the  normal.  The  higher  Madchenschule 
is  a  public  day  school  organized  and  managed  much 


PRUSSIAN   SCHOOLS 


as   are  the  higher  schools  for  boys.    The  prescribed 
curriculum  is  as  follows :  — 


GENERAL    CURRICULUM    FOR    HIGHER    MADCHENSCHVLE 


CLASS 

LOWER 
CLASSES 
(Vorschule) 

MIDDLE 
CLASSES 

HIGHER 
CLASSES 

TOTAL 

X 

IX 

vni 

vn 

VI 

V 

IV 

III 

n 

I 

vn-i 

Religion  

31 
10 

31 

4 
V. 

•/• 

31 
9 

31 
3 

4 
2 

V. 
V. 

31 
8 

2» 

31 

2 
4 

2 

v« 
•/• 

3 

6» 
6 

2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 
5 
5 

2 
2 

3 
2 
I 
2 

2 
2 
2 

3 
S 
S 

2 
2 

3 

2 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 

4 
4 
4 

2 
2 

3 

3 

2 

(2) 
2 

3 

2 

4 
4 
4 

2 
2 

3 

3 

2 
(2) 
2 

3 

2 

4 
4 
4 

2 

2 

3 
3 

2 

(2) 
2 
3 

2 

4 

4 
4 

3 

2 

3 

2 

2 
(2) 
2 

3 

17 
32 
3» 
16 

13 

14 

21 
17 

3 

14 
6(14) 

14 
18 

German  

French    

English    

History  *  and  History  of 
Art       

Geography  
Arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
geometry  
Nature  study   .... 
Writing   

Drawing  *    

Needlework  6    .     .     .     . 
Singing    

Gymnastics  

Total     .... 

18 

22 

22 

31 

31 

31 

31 

3i 

31 

3i 

217 

Religion,  German,  French,  English,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  and  nature 
study  are  called  scientific  subjects;  writing,  drawing,  needlework,  singing, 
and  gymnastics  are  called  technical  subjects. 

1  Instruction  in  religion  and  arithmetic  in  the  Vorschule  classes  may  be  divided 

into  half  periods. 

*  In  class  VII  German  along  with  history  stories. 
1  In  class  VIII  domestic  art. 
4  In  classes  X  to  VIII  exercises  in  drawing  and  modeling  are  given  occasionally 

in  connection  with  German  instruction. 
8  Instruction  in  needlework  is  optional  in  the  higher  classes. 

By   comparing   this   curriculum   with   those   for   the 
Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  and  Oberrealschule  for  boys, 


14      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

it  will  be  seen  that  the  former  falls  short  of  the  latter 
by  two  years.  Until  1908  the  Prussian  state  provided 
no  school  for  girls  which  offered  them  an  education  equal 
to  that  available  for  boys.  The  additional  training 
had  to  be  secured,  if  at  all,  in  private  schools.  The  suc- 
cess of  these  private  schools  and  the  demand  for  larger 
educational  opportunities  for  girls  resulted  in  an  imperial 
decree  bearing  date  of  August  15,  1908,  according  to 
which  provision  was  made  for  establishment,  by  the 
state,  of  girls'  higher  schools  corresponding  to  those 
already  existing  for  boys.  These  new  schools  are  to 
be  formed  by  adding  three  years  to  the  course  previously 
prescribed  for  the  higher  Madchenschule  and  by  making 
certain  modifications  in  the  arrangement  of  the  earlier 
work,  beginning  with  the  fifth  year  of  the  course  in  the 
case  of  the  Gymnasium  and  with  the  sixth  year  in  the  case 
of  the  Realgymnasium  and  Oberrealschule.  It  remains 
to  be  seen  how  many  of  the  previously  established  ten- 
year  schools  will  become  thirteen-year  schools.  The 
curricula  for  the  three  kinds  of  schools,  beginning  with 
the  fourth  year,  are  given  below.1  The  work  of  the  first 
three  years,  the  Vorschule,  is  the  same  as  that  given  in  the 
curriculum  for  the  higher  Madchenschule.  These  cur- 
ricula correspond  to  those  previously  given  for  the 
Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium,  and  Oberrealschule  for  boys, 

1  Bestimmungen  iiber  die  Neuordnung  des   hoheren  Madchenschul- 
wesens  in  Preussen. 


PRUSSIAN   SCHOOLS 


the  apparent  difference  being  due  to  a  different  way  of 
designating  the  classes.  The  girls  are  given  ten  years 
to  do  the  work  done  by  the  boys  in  nine  years. 

CURRICULUM    OF    GIRLS'   GYMNASIUM1 


CLASS 

X 

IX 

vm 

vn 

VI 

V 

IV 

m 

II 

I 

TOTAL 

Religion  .     . 
German  * 
Latin  .     .     . 
Greek      .     . 
French  3  .     . 
English  •  .     . 
History  4 

3 
6 

6 

3 
S 

S 

2 

3 

S 

S 

2 

2 

4 

4 
4 

2 

2 

3 
6 

3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 

3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 

8 

2 

2 

a 
3 
6 

8 

2 
2 

2 

3 
6 

8 

2 
2 

2 

3 
6 
8 

2 
2 

23 
38 
36 
32 

34 

10 

18 

Mathematics 
Nature  study 
Writing  .     . 
Drawing 
Needlework 
Singing    .     . 
Gymnastics  . 

3 
2 

I 
2 
2 
2 

2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 
3 

2 
2 

3 

4 
3 

2 

3 

4 
3 

2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

3 
2 

3 

3 
2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

32 
23 
3 

12 

6 

8 

27 

Total  .    . 

31 

31 

31 

31 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

32 

316 

Optional,  in  addition,  singing  i  hour  from  class  VI  on;  drawing  2  hours  from 
class  IV  on;  needlework  in  VTI. 

^he  term  Studienawtalt  is  used  to  include  the  Gymnasium,  Realgymnasium, 

and  Oberrealsckule  for  girls. 
1  In  the  higher  classes  the  elements  of  philosophy  are  taught  along  with  German. 

*  In  the  four  higher  classes  English  may  be  substituted  for  French. 

*  In  class  IX  German  with  history  stories. 


1 6      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


CURRICULUM  OF  GIRLS'  REALGYMNASIUM 


CLASS 

X 

rx 

vm 

vn 

VI 

V 

rv 

m 

n 

I 

TOTAL 

Religion  .    . 
German  l  .    . 
Latin  .     .     . 
French     .    . 
English    .     . 
History  *  .    . 

3 
6 

6 

3 

5 

S 

2 

3 
5 

S 

2 

2 

4 

4 

4 

2 

2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 

3 
3 

2 

2 

3 
6 
3 
3 

2 

23 
38 
36 
38 

22 

18 

«fi 

Nature  study 
Writing   .     . 
Drawing  .     . 
Needlework  . 
Singing    ;     . 
Gymnastics  . 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2 

I 
2 
2 
2 

2 

3 

2 
2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

3 

2 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

2 

3 

4 

2 

3 

31 

3 

20 

6 
8 
27 

Total    . 

31 

31 

31 

31 

32 

32 

33 

33 

33 

33 

320 

Optional,  in  addition,  i  hour  of  singing  from  class  VI  on. 

1  In  the  higher  classes  the  elements  of  philosophy  are  taught  along  with  German. 

*  In  class  IX  German  with  history  stories. 

CURRICULUM   OF   GIRLS'   OBERREALSCHULE 


CLASS 

X 

LX 

vm 

vn 

VI 

V 

rv 

m 

n 

I 

TOTAL 

Religion    .     . 
German  *  .     . 
French      .    . 
English     .     . 
History  2  .     . 

3 
6 
6 

3 
5 
S 

2 

3 
S 
S 

2 

2 

4 
4 
4 

2 

2 

4 
4 
4 

2 

2 

4 
4 
4 

2 

2 

4 

4i 
4) 

2 

2 

4! 

4) 

2 

2 

4 

Ji 

2 

2 

4 

Jl 

2 

23 
44 
44 
28 
18 

Mathematics 
Nature  study 
Writing    .    . 
Drawing  .     . 
Needlework  . 
Singing     .     . 
Gymnastics  . 

3 

2 

I 
2 

2 
2 
2 

3 

2 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 

2 

I 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 
3 

2 
2 

3 

3 
3 

2 
2 

3 

4 

4 

2 

3 

s! 

4i 

2 

3 

s| 

4* 

2 

3 

LI 

2 

3 

L' 

2 

3 

39 

32 
3 
20 

6 

IO 

27 

Total      . 

31 

31 

31 

31 

31 

30 

3i 

31 

31 

3i 

309 

Optional,  in  addition,  i  hour  of  singing  from  class  V  on ;  needlework  2  hours  in 
VH  and  VI. 

1  In  the  higher  classes  the  elements  of  philosophy  are  taught  along  with  German. 

2  In  class  LX  German  with  history  stories. 


PRUSSIAN   SCHOOLS  17 

Besides  the  higher  Mddchenschule  and  the  Gymnasium, 
Realgymnasium,  and  Oberrealschule  for  girls,  all  of  which 
are  nonvocational  general  culture  schools,  there  is  an- 
other class  called  the  Lyzeum  that  is  distinctly  vocational 
in  character.  The  Lyzeum  has  two  divisions,  the  Frau- 
enanstalt,  or  school  for  women,  and  \heLehrerinnenseminar, 
or  normal  school  for  female  teachers.  The  former  has  a 
two-yea  course  immediately  following  that  of  the  higher 
Mddchenschule,  and  the  work,  which  consists  largely  of 
training  in  the  household  arts  and  the  care  of  children, 
is  designed  to  prepare  girls  for  the  duties  of  the  home. 


CURRICULUM  OF  LEHRERINNENSEMINAR 


in 

n 

I 

TOTAL 

PRACTICE 
YEAH 

Religion    

3 

3 

3 

g 

i 

Pedagogy      

2 

2 

2 

6 

3 

German    

3 

3 

3 

g 

I 

French      

4 

4 

4 

12  < 

English     .         

4 

4 

4 

U 

I 

2 

2 

2 

6( 

Geography 

2 

I 

I 

4) 

I 

Mathematics                   

4 

4 

4 

12 

I 

Nature  study     .         

2 

3 

3 

8 

I 

Theory  and  method 

(4') 

4 

Practice  teaching        .         .... 







4-6 

Special  studies  *    

__ 







8 

Drawing   .     .                             ... 

2 

2 

I 

5 



Singing     

I 

I 

I 

3 

— 

Gymnastics 

3 

3 

3 

g 

3 

32 

32 

3i 

95 

28-30 

1  Included  in  the  study  of  particular  subjects. 

*  A  special  study  of  subjects  that  the  student  will  teach.    In  the  practice  year 
method  is  studied  in  connection  with  the  different  subjects. 


1 8      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

The  Lehrerinnenseminar  is  a  school  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  most  of  whom  enter  the  elementary  schools; 
some  of  them,  however,  are  admitted  to  the  girls'  higher 
schools  as  nonacademically  trained  teachers.  The 
curriculum  of  the  Lehrerinnenseminar,  as  given  above, 
presupposes  the  completion  of  the  course  in  the  higher 
Madchenschule. 

This  brief  sketch  of  the  Prussian  schools  shows  in  a 
general  way  the  sphere  of  the  teacher,  especially  of  the 
teacher  in  the  higher  schools.  It  may  be  added  that  he 
has  no  responsibility  for  the  making  of  curricula  or  for 
the  selection  of  subject  matter  in  any  form.  All  of  this 
is  done  for  him  by  state  authority,  and  specific  instruc- 
tions are  given  him  as  to  how  the  various  subjects  should 
be  taught.  His  task  is  sharply  defined,  and  he  is  held 
responsible  for  its  proper  performance.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  schools  emphasizes  the  importance  of  good 
teaching  quite  as  much  as  of  scholarship.  The  teacher 
must  learn  to  adapt  himself  and  his  work  to  the  nine- 
year-old  child  as  well  as  to  the  youth  of  eighteen  or 
twenty.  Good  teaching  is  the  one  thing  required  of  him. 

The  management  of  the  schools  mentioned  is  vested 
in  two  entirely  separate  ministries  located  in  Berlin. 
The  Forttrildungsschulen  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
ministry  of  trade  and  industry  (Bandelsministerium). 
The  others  are  under  the  direction  of  the  ministry  of 
education  (geistliche,  Unterrichts-  und  Medizinalange- 


PRUSSIAN    SCHOOLS  1 9 

legenheiten) .  Further,  in  the  management  of  the  Volks- 
schule  and  the  Mitielschule,  the  ministry  of  education 
works  through  the  county  board  (Regierung) ;  in  the 
management  of  the  higher  schools,  through  the  provin- 
cial school  board  (Provinzialschulkollegium) .  Both  of 
these  subauthorities  are  responsible  to  the  ministry  of 
education,  but  they  have  very  little  to  do  with  each  other. 
This  fact  serves  to  emphasize  the  sharp  separation 
between  the  elementary  schools  and  the  higher  schools. 
Just  as  everything  else  in  Germany,  the  schools  are  highly 
specialized. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  TEACHERS  IN  PRUSSIAN 
HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

THE  present  high  standard  of  qualifications  legally 
required  of  teachers  in  the  higher  schools  of  Germany 
has  a  long  history.  It  is  the  product  of  centuries  of  devel- 
opment, but  its  evolution  during  the  last  hundred  years 
is  particularly  significant.  The  bare  outlines  of  this  his- 
tory, together  with  a  more  complete  statement  of  present 
requirements,  are  given  in  this  chapter. 

Before  1810  the  legal  qualifications  of  teachers  for  the 
Prussian  higher  schools  were  neither  very  definitely 
stated  nor  very  strictly  enforced.  There  are  on  record 
official  regulations  bearing  date  of  1713,  1718,  1750,  and 
1787,  but  their  greatest  significance  lies  in  the  fact  that 
they  represent  an  attempt  to  require  certain  more  or  less 
definitely  stated  qualifications  in  teachers  without  suffi- 
cient state  control  of  the  schools  or  adequate  recognition 
of  the  teacher's  position.  Concerning  these  regulations, 
Wiese,  the  great  historian  of  the  Prussian  higher  schools, 
says :  "  From  them  no  general  and  consequently  effective 
provision  arose,  and  before  1810  a  certificate  obtained  by 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  21 

examination  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  require- 
ment for  admittance  to  the  position  of  teacher  in  the 
higher  schools.  Such  a  certificate  was  seldom  demanded 
by  the  patrons  of  the  city  schools.  As  long  as  the 
teachers  were  chiefly  theologians,  evidence  of  scientific 
training  for  the  ministerial  office  was  usually  regarded 
as  sufficient ;  in  other  cases  the  recommendation  of  an 
experienced  man  of  rank  or  the  teaching  of  a  test  lesson 
sufficed.  The  degree  of  Master  or  Doctor  received  from 
the  university  was  valid  as  a  certificate  of  admission  to 
the  teacher's  office,  as  was  also  evidence  of  participation 
in  the  theological,  philological,  and  pedagogical  seminars 
connected  with  the  universities."  1  The  situation  here 
described  is  the  more  easily  understood  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  at  this  time  the  schools  were  neither  supported 
nor  controlled  by  the  state  but  by  the  church  or  by 
private  organizations  of  some  kind,  and  most  of  the 
teachers  were  young  theologians,  who  followed  the  work 
of  teaching  as  a  makeshift  until  they  should  be  appointed 
to  positions  in  the  church.  Not  the  state  but  the  church 
was  the  dominating  influence. 

The  Edict  of  1810  was  the  result  of  the  quickened  na- 
tional consciousness  which,  after  the  Napoleonic  defeats, 
developed  under  the  inspiring  leadership  of  Fichte  and 
his  illustrious  colleagues.  In  his  Addresses  to  the  German 
People  the  former  pleaded  for  a  higher  ideal  of  intelli- 

1  Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen,  I,  545. 


22      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

gence  and  patriotism,  while  the  latter  both  created  new 
standards  of  culture  and  organized  more  effectively  the 
national  forces  already  hi  existence.  As  Chief  of  the 
Division  for  Culture  and  Instruction,  William  von  Hum- 
boldt  was  the  leading  educational  official  of  the  nation, 
and  he  brought  to  the  position,  not  only  true  patriotism, 
but  great  breadth  of  view  and  wealth  of  experience  gamed 
by  years  of  study,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  of  art,  his- 
tory, philology,  and  jurisprudence.  He  was  at  once  a 
great  scholar  and  an  able  official.  To  him,  more  than 
to  any  one  else,  is  due  the  honor  of  sketching  the  official 
order  the  execution  of  which  has  made  the  schools  of 
Germany  great. 

The  edict  was  officially  promulgated  on  July  12.  In 
April  of  the  same  year  von  Humboldt  wrote  as  follows : 
"  The  business  of  education  in  the  state  is  honored  if  every 
one  who  is  occupied  therewith  is  first  required  to  give 
evidence  of  his  ability  for  it,  and  duly  educates  himself 
among  those  who  devote  themselves  to  this  business  and 
who,  through  public  sanction,  form  at  the  same  time  a 
closed  circle.  Thus  a  spirit  develops,  which  without  being 
a  tribal  spirit  is  directed  steadily  and  surely  towards  the 
attainment  of  a  common  end.  There  arises  a  pedagog- 
ical school  and  a  pedagogical  comradeship ;  and  if  it  is 
important  to  prevent  unity  of  views  effected  through  com- 
pulsion, it  is  equally  important,  through  a  certain  com- 
munity which  is  never  thinkable  without  the  separation 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  23 

of  those  not  belonging  to  it,  to  produce  a  strength  and 
enthusiasm  which  are  always  wanting  in  individual  and 
scattered  efforts,  which  separate  the  bad  from  them,  raise 
and  lead  the  average,  and  establish  and  hasten  the  prog- 
ress of  the  best.  This  last  and  most  important  purpose 
can  only  be  attained,  however,  when  the  examinations 
are  undertaken  with  a  certain  satisfaction  and  are  re- 
garded as  an  opportunity  to  prove  power."  * 

In  the  promulgation  of  the  edict  the  accomplishment 
of  three  things  was  sought:  i.  The  release  of  the  schools 
from  the  influence  of  teachers  who  received  their  appoint- 
ment upon  the  recommendation  of  irresponsible  and,  too 
often,  incompetent  advisers.  2.  The  complete  separa- 
tion of  the  schools  from  the  domination  of  the  church. 
3.  The  establishment  of  a  standard  of  qualifications  for 
teachers  which  would  both  secure  efficiency  in  the  schools 
and  lead  to  the  development  of  an  independent  profession 
of  teaching.  The  avowed  underlying  principle  was  that 
the  character  and  the  importance  of  the  work  of  the 
schools  are  such  that  it  can  only  be  satisfactorily  done  by 
those  who  have  received  special  training  for  it  and  who 
devote  their  lives  to  it.  For  the  work  of  the  church  a 
definite  standard  had  already  been  established.  A  simi- 
lar but  entirely  separate  standard  was  now  sought  for 
the  work  of  the  school. 

The  provisions  of  the  original  edict  were  simple.  The 
1  Wiese,  Das  h6here  Schulwesen  in  Preussen,  I,  546. 


24      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS  FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

examination  pro  facultate  docendi  was  to  be  conducted  by 
a  state  commission  appointed  for  the  purpose.  It  con- 
sisted of  three  parts,  the  oral  and  the  written  tests  and  the 
trial  lesson.  The  subject  matter  was  mainly  philological 
and  mathematical,  though  other  subjects  to  which  the 
candidate  had  specially  devoted  himself  were  not  excluded. 
Judgment  concerning  the  extent  of  the  examination  and 
a  satisfactory  standard  of  attainment  was  left  with  the 
examining  commission.  Men  who  had  received  the 
degree  of  Doctor  or  Master  from  a  German  university 
and  members  of  the  various  seminars  attached  to  the 
universities  were  excused  from  the  written  examination. 
A  special  examination  for  a  specified  position,  different 
from  the  general  examination,  was  permitted.  Desirable 
foreigners  and  prominent  officials  might  be  exempt. 
The  provisions  of  the  edict  were  to  be  enforced,  begin- 
ning with  the  year  1813. 

Changes  in  the  provisions  of  the  edict  were  made  from 
time  to  time,  the  general  effect  of  which  was  to  render 
them  both  more  specific  and  more  extensive.  Only  the 
more  important  are  noted  in  this  sketch.  In  the  first 
place,  the  subject  matter  of  the  examination  was  soon 
seen  to  be  one-sided,  and  in  1824  philosophy,  history,  and 
theology  were  added.  The  single  test  lesson  proved  un- 
satisfactory, and  in  1826  the  Probejahr  or  year  of  trial 
teaching  was  introduced.  Wiese  gives  the  essential 
provisions  prevailing  in  1831  as  follows:- 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  2$ 

"  The  examinations  which  the  royal  scientific  examination 
commission  has  to  administer  are :  (i)  the  examination  pro  facul- 
tate  docendi;  (2)  for  a  specified  position;  (3)  for  promotion; 
(4)  for  the  position  of  rector. 

"  The  examination  pro  facultate  docendi  refers  to  (a)  languages 
(Greek,  Lathi,  French,  Hebrew) ;  (b)  sciences  (mathematics, 
physics,  natural  history) ;  history  and  geography  (along  with 
antiquities,  mythology,  and  the  history  of  Greek  and  Roman 
literature) ;  philosophy  and  pedagogy ;  theology. 

"  With  the  application  for  the  examination  must  be  presented  a 
certificate  of  proficiency  in  the  university  studies  and  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  academic  triennium;  also  an  autobiographical  sketch 
in  Latin.  (In  the  case  of  those  who  wish  to  give  instruction  par- 
ticularly in  the  sciences  in  Realschulen  and  higher  Burgerschulen 
this  sketch  may  be  written  in  French.)  Foreigners  need  a  min- 
isterial permit  to  admit  them  to  the  examination. 

"  Form  of  the  examination :  written  treatises,  test  lessons,  and 
oral  examination. 

"  Groups  of  subjects  in  which  &  facultas  docendi  can  be  secured : 

(a)  the  two  ancient  languages  and  German ;  (6)  mathematics  and 
the  natural  sciences;    (c)  geography  and  history. 

"Grades  of  certificate:     (a)   unconditioned  facultas  docendi; 

(b)  conditioned  facultas  docendi. 

" '  The  unconditioned  facultas  docendi  shall  be  given  to  him 
only  who,  besides  possessing  satisfactory  teaching  ability,  is  so 
far  master  of  the  subject  matter  in  at  least  one  of  the  three  essen- 
tial parts  of  school  instruction  (that  is,  of  the  above  subjects, 
a,  b,  c),  that  with  proper  preparation  he  can  teach  this  subject 
with  success  in  one  of  the  two  higher  classes  of  a  Gymnasium. 
With  all  the  remaining  subjects  of  the  examination  he  must  be 
well  enough  acquainted  to  estimate  rightly  their  relation  to  the 
other  subjects  and  their  relative  importance,  and  he  must  be  able 
to  use  these  successfully  for  the  general  education  of  the  pupils.' 

"Conditioned  facultas  docendi.  —  'He  who  possesses  sufficient 


26      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

knowledge  in  the  principal  subjects  to  be  able  to  instruct  in  the 
upper  classes,  but  who,  on  the  contrary,  does  not  satisfy  the  re- 
quirements in  one  or  in  several  subjects  which  must  be  demanded 
of  every  teacher  in  a  higher  school,  can  receive  the  facultas  do- 
cendi  only  on  condition  that  he  make  up  afterwards  the  specified 
deficiencies  in  his  scientific  education.  Further,  the  conditioned 
facultas  docendi  is  to  be  given  to  all  those  candidates  who,  in  one 
or  in  several  of  the  principal  subjects  of  instruction,  possess  only 
so  much  knowledge  as  is  required  of  teachers  in  the  middle  and 
lower  classes.' 

"To  special  requirements  belong  the  following:  'He  who  does 
not  possess  as  much  knowledge  of  the  German  language  and  lit- 
erature and  as  much  scientific  education  as  are  necessary  to  enable 
hun  to  instruct  with  success  in  the  German  language  in  every  class, 
including  the  highest,  can  lay  no  claim  to  the  unconditioned 
Jacultas  docendi  in  a  philological  subject.' 

" '  In  the  case  of  French,  a  knowledge  of  the  grammar  and  the 
ability  to  translate  a  poet  or  prose  writer  readily  are  to  be  required 
of  every  one,  even  when  he  gives  no  instruction  in  this  language.' 

"For  the  unconditioned  facultas  docendi  in  history  it  is  also 
required  'that  the  candidate  shall  possess  enough  philological 
training  so  that  he  can  use  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors,  not  only 
for  his  lectures,  but  through  these  authors  be  able  to  contribute 
to  an  understanding  of  the  lectures;  and  besides  he  must  be  so 
proficient  in  the  oral  expression  of  the  Latin  language  that  he  is 
able  to  give  his  lectures  in  ancient  history  in  that  language.' 

"Philosophy  and  pedagogy.  —  'Of  every  candidate,  even  when 
he  wishes  to  instruct  in  the  lower  classes  only,  is  required  a  knowl- 
edge of  logic,  psychology,  and  the  history  of  philosophy,  as  well  as 
acquaintance  with  scientific  pedagogy.  Of  the  candidates  who 
wish  to  instruct  in  the  higher  classes  of  the  Gymnasium  and  to 
teach  the  preparatory  philosophical  studies  arranged  for  these 
classes,  it  is  required  that,  besides  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  instruction  and  a  critical  estimate  of  the  worth  of  differ- 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  27 

ent  systems  of  instruction  and  education,  they  be  able  to  develop 
scientifically  the  content  of  logic,  metaphysic,  and  psychology; 
and  that  with  a  general  knowledge  of  the  history  of  philosophy 
and  of  different  philosophical  systems,  a  more  accurate  acquaint- 
ance with  philosophy  since  Kant  be  united.' 

"Of  those  candidates  who  do  not  wish  to  give  instruction  in 
religion,  acquaintance  with  the  contents  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
and  knowledge  of  Christian  faith  and  morality  are  required. 

"Cost  of  certificate:    four  thalers. 

"Dispensation.  — He  who  has  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  or 
Master  after  a  formal  oral  examination  and  after  a  public  defence 
of  a  printed  Latin  dissertation  before  the  philosophical  faculty  of  a 
German  university  is  excused  from  the  written  examination.  .  .  . 

"The  candidates  who  are  provisionally  rejected  on  account  of 
the  insufficiency  of  their  knowledge  receive  a  certificate  also,  in 
which  is  stated  the  time  up  to  which  they  may  apply  for  another 
examination.  Copies  of  certificates  of  this  kind  are  to  be  sent  to 
the  other  scientific  examination  commissions. 

"The  regulations  concerning  the  Probejahr  are  taken  up  in  the 
law  (pp.  547  and  533).  [A  Probejahr  for  observation  and  practice 
was  required.] 

"In  the  examination  of  teachers  for  Realschulen  and  higher 
Burger schulen,  the  requirements  in  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences,  as  well  as  those  in  history ,'geography,  and  French,  should 
be  raised  rather  than  lowered,  and  the  requirements  in  the  Latin 
language  should  never  be  remitted  entirely. 

"The  examination  for  a  specified  position  as  well  as  the  exam- 
ination for  promotion  takes  place  only  when  the  candidate  is 
chosen  for  a  definite  position;  that  is,  has  been  promoted  to  a 
higher  position  for  which  he  has  not  previously  shown  the  required 
qualification.  It  refers  only  to  those  subjects  in  which  the  can- 
didate is  required  to  give  instruction  in  the  particular  position. 

"The  examination  for  the  position  of  rector  is  held  only  when 
the  designation  for  a  particular  position  as  director  occurs.  The 


28      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS  FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

purpose  of  this  examination  is  to  determine  whether  the  person 
proposed  for  the  directorate  of  a  Gymnasium  or  a  Realschule  pos- 
sesses the  grade  of  philosophical,  pedagogical,  and  scientific  knowl- 
edge which  is  required  to  superintend  the  whole  of  such  an  insti- 
tution of  learning  and  to  direct  it  systematically."  * 

The  Examination  Requirements  of  1866  are  sufficiently 
different  from  those  of  preceding  years  to  mark  a  step  in 
advance.  The  significant  changes  are  as  follows: — 

1.  In  the  order  of  1831  there  was  no  sharp  distinction 
between  the  examination  required  to  test  the  candidate's 
general  education  and  that  required  to  test  his  knowledge 
of  the  subjects  that  he  wished  to  teach.      Examination 
was  required  in  all  the  subjects  named,  but  it  might  be 
less  severe  in  those  subjects  which  he  did  not  expect  to 
teach.     In  the  order  of  1866  all  candidates  were  required 
to  pass  an  oral  examination  in  religion,  hi  philosophy 
and  pedagogy,  in  history  and  geography,  in  the  ancient 
languages,  and  in  French.     Examination  in  mathematics 
was  not  required  in  this  general  test,  and  examination  in 
the  natural  sciences  was  required  of  those  only  who  wished 
to  become  teachers  of  mathematics.     On  the  other  hand, 
a  special  examination  both  oral  and  written  was  required 
in  those  subjects  for  which  the  candidate  desired  the 
teaching  certificate. 

2.  The  written  work  of  the  examination  was  made  more 
extensive  and  more  definite.    The  candidate  was  required 

1  Wiese,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen,  I,  548-549. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  29 

to  present  a  carefully  written  discussion  of  some  philo- 
sophical or  pedagogical  subject  and  one  or  two  papers  in 
the  sphere  of  the  subjects  for  which  he  desired  to  be  certifi- 
cated. The  writing  of  these  papers  in  Latin  was  required 
of  those  only  who  desired  a  certificate  for  the  classical 
languages.  Those  who  had  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy  from  the  university  were  no  longer  excused 
from  the  written  examination,  but  they  might  present  the 
doctor's  dissertation  or  some  other  particularly  meritori- 
ous piece  of  writing  in  place  of  the  special  thesis  required 
in  this  same  sphere. 

3.  The  grouping  of  the  subjects  was  changed,  and 
theology  and  the  modern  languages  were  added  as  princi- 
pal subjects.     The  new  arrangement  included  the  philo- 
logical-historical group;  the  mathematical-natural  science 
group ;  theology ;  and  the  modern  languages,  the  groups 
being  regarded  theoretically  as  equal  in  value. 

4.  The  requirement  concerning  the  test  lesson  was  re- 
laxed.    It  was  left  to  the  option  of  the  candidate  whether 
or  not,  at  the  close  of  his  oral  examination,  he  would  give 
such  an  exercise. 

5.  The  special  examinations  for  a  specified  place,  for 
promotion,  and  for  the  position  of  rector  were  practically 
omitted. 

6.  Three  grades  of  certificates  were  issued  instead  of 
two  as  formerly.    A  certificate  of  the  first  grade  was  issued 
to  a  candidate  who,  in  addition  to  a  satisfactory  general 


30      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

examination,  showed  teaching  proficiency  in  two  or  three 
principal  subjects  for  the  higher  classes  and  like  profi- 
ciency in  one  of  two  other  subjects  for  the  middle  classes. 
A  certificate  of  the  second  grade  was  given  to  a  candidate 
who  had  failed  in  any  one  of  the  points  required  for  the 
first  grade,  or  who,  besides  giving  satisfactory  proof  of  a 
general  education,  had  shown  teaching  proficiency  in  two 
or  three  subjects  for  the  middle  classes  and  like  proficiency 
in  some  subjects  for  the  lower  classes.  A  third-grade 
certificate  was  issued  to  a  candidate  who  had  failed 
to  satisfy  the  second-grade  requirements  with  ref- 
erence to  the  general  examination  or  with  reference  to 
specific  subjects  which  he  wished  to  teach.  In  case 
the  candidate  showed  incompetence  to  teach  as  far  as 
Quarta,  the  third  year  of  the  course,  no  certificate  was 
granted.  A  candidate  who,  besides  having  the  required 
general  education,  showed  proficiency  in  one  or  both  of 
the  modern  languages  for  all  classes  was  nevertheless 
debarred  from  the  higher  positions,  —  a  fact  which 
showed  that  the  modern  languages  were  not  yet  practi- 
cally regarded  as  on  a  par  with  the  other  subjects.  In  a 
similar  way  theology  was  placed  at  a  slight  disadvantage, 
for  candidates  who  wished  to  teach  this  subject  could  ob- 
tain a  first-grade  certificate  only  when,  in  addition  to  the 
general  examination,  they  showed  proficiency  in  German, 
theology,  and  Hebrew  for  all  classes,  and  proficiency  for 
the  middle  classes  in  either  Latin  and  Greek  or  hi  mathe- 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  31 

matics  and  the  natural  sciences.  Candidates  whose  gen- 
eral examination  in  religion,  philosophy,  or  history  was 
not  entirely  satisfactory  were  sometimes  temporarily 
certificated,  but  were  required  to  prepare  themselves  for 
another  examination  in  the  deficient  subject  before  they 
received  permanent  appointment.  Both  candidates  and 
teachers  were  permitted  to  pass  examinations  for  a  higher- 
grade  certificate  as  often  as  they  desired  to  do  so. 
The  Requirements  of  1887  show  the  following  changes : — 

1.  The  general  examination  required  of  all  candidates 
was  limited  to  philosophy,  pedagogy,  the  German  lan- 
guage and  literature,  and  the  Christian  religion.    This 
limitation  was  made  because  it  was  recognized  that  the 
leaving  examination  of  the  higher  school,  required  before 
the  candidate  could  enter  the  university,  was  a  consider- 
able test  of  general  culture,  and  preparation  for  a  later 
examination  in  all  subjects  served  to  dissipate  the  candi- 
date's energy. 

2.  The  basis  upon  which  certificates  were  granted  was 
changed,  and  but  two  grades  were  recognized.    A  certifi- 
cate of  the  first  grade  (Oberlehrerzeugniss)  was  granted 
to  a  candidate  who,  besides  meeting  the  requirements  of 
the  general  examination,  showed  proficiency  in  two  prin- 
cipal subjects  for  all  classes  and  proficiency  in  either  one 
companion  subject  for  the  higher  classes  or  in  two  com- 
panion subjects  for  the  middle  classes.     A  certificate  of 
the  second  grade  (Lehrerzeugniss)  was  granted  to  a  candi- 


32      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

date  who  showed  proficiency  in  two  principal  subjects 
and  one  companion  subject  for  the  middle  classes  and  in  at 
least  one  companion  subject  for  the  lower  classes. 

3.  The  grouping  and  ranking  of  individual  subjects 
showed   slight  modification.    The  modern  foreign  lan- 
guages were  placed  with  the  ancient  languages  and  Ger- 
man in  one  group  and  were  regarded  as  principal  subjects 
equal  in  value  to  any  other.     Geography,  formerly  united 
with  some  other  subject,  was  made  a  principal  subject. 
The    two   principal   subjects  for  which   the   candidate 
wished  to  be  certificated  had  to  be  chosen  from  the 
same  group. 

4.  Provision  was  made  for  a  supplementary  examina- 
tion.   In  case  the  candidate  had  passed  satisfactorily  the 
examination  in  the  two  principal  subjects,  but  had  failed 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  general  examination  or  of 
the  companion  subjects,  he  was  granted  a  "conditioned" 
certificate  and  placed  under  obligations  to  make  up  the 
deficiencies  within  three  years  at  most.    At  first  such  a 
candidate  was  permitted  to  enter  at  once  upon  the  year 
of  trial  service  (Probejahr),  but  in  1890  this  privilege  was 
withdrawn. 

5.  A  candidate  who  had  failed  entirely  in  one  examina- 
tion was  permitted  but  one  more  trial. 

6.  A  candidate  who  had  received  a  certificate  of  first  or 
second  grade  was  admitted  to  a  second  or  third  partial 
examination,  either  to  extend  his  teaching  right  to  higher 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  33 

classes  in  a  subject  in  which  he  already  possessed  it  for 
the  lower  classes,  or  to  extend  it  to  other  subjects. 

7.  Candidates  for  the  ministry,  who  possessed  the  edu- 
cation required  for  appointment  to  a  position  in  the 
church,  might  receive  a  first-grade  certificate  (Ober- 
lehrerzeugniss}  by  passing  an  oral  examination  showing 
their  ability  to  give  instruction  in  religion  in  the  higher 
classes  and  in  one  subject  of  the  language-history  group  hi 
the  middle  classes ;  and  by  passing  an  oral  examination 
and  presenting  a  thesis  showing  proficiency  in  Hebrew 
for  the  higher  classes. 

The  Order  of  1890  provided  for  the  establishment  of  a 
Seminarjahr,  a  year  of  combined  theoretical  and  practical 
training,  between  the  time  the  candidate  had  passed  his 
state  examination  and  his  entrance  upon  the  Probejahr  or 
year  of  trial  service.  The  manner  in  which  this  order  is 
carried  out  is  described  in  full  on  later  pages. 

The  Order  of  1898  was  concerned  mainly  with  modifi- 
cations looking  towards  a  better  administration  of  existing 
rules,  and,  with  a  few  minor  changes,  it  remains  in  force. 
For  the  reader  who  would  understand  the  spirit  and  the 
details  of  German  training  the  regulations  contained  in 
this  order  are  so  significant  that  they  are  given  in  full. 
The  changes  made  since  1898  are  incorporated  in  them. 


34     TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

RULES  *  OF  THE  EXAMINATION  FOR  THE  POSITION  OF  TEACHER  IN 
THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  OF  PRUSSIA,  FROM  SEPTEMBER  12, 1898  * 

§  i.    Purpose  of  the  Examination 

The  purpose  of  the  examination  is  the  determination  of  the 
scientific  qualifications  for  the  position  of  teacher  in  higher  schools. 

§  2.    The  Examining  Authority 

The  examination  is  given  by  one  of  the  royal  scientific  examina- 
tion commissions. 

The  minister  of  education  (der  geistlichen,  Unterrichts-  und 
Medizinalangelegenheiten)  determines  the  place  and  the  examina- 
tion district  of  these  commissions  and  names  their  members. 

The  commissions  are  composed  for  the  most  part  of  university 
instructors  and  schoolmen ;  the  chairmanship  is  given  to  a  school- 
man. 

The  term  of  office  of  the  commissions  is  one  year. 

1  Translated  from  Die  Ordnungen  fur  die  Priifung  fur  die  praktische 
Ausbildung  und  die  Anstellung  der  Kandidaten  des  hoheren  Lehramts 
in   Preussen,  by  Dr.   Wilhelm  Fries.     The  author  is   under  particular 
obligations  to  Dr.  Fries  for  the  privilege  of  using  this  material. 

2  The  regulations  given  in  this  chapter  apply  to  men  teachers  only. 
There  are  no  women  teachers  in  the  boys'  higher  schools.    In  the  girls' 
higher  schools  about  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  women. 
Their  scholastic  training  is  not  nearly  equal  to  that  required  of  men  teach- 
ers.    It  consists  usually  of  the  girls'  higher  school  course  and  a  three- 
year  seminar  course.     In  1908  the  German  universities  were  thrown 
open  to  women  on  equal  terms  with  men,  and  beginning  with  the  year 
1913  women  teachers  entering  the  higher  schools  must  have  had  univer- 
sity training  and  must  have  passed  the  state  examination  for  higher 
teachers.     No  provision  for  the  Seminarjahr  and  Probejahr  has  yet  been 
made,  but  it  will  probably  come  when  there  are  university-trained  women 
who  wish  to  become  teachers  in  the  higher  schools. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  35 

§  3.    Examining  Boards 

For  the  examination  of  individual  candidates  the  chairman 
appoints  from  the  members  of  the  commission  an  examining  board, 
the  leadership  of  which  he  either  assumes  himself  or  assigns  to 
another  member. 

The  decisions  of  the  board  are  made  by  majority  vote.  In 
case  of  a  tie,  the  chairman  casts  the  deciding  vote. 

§  4.    Jurisdiction  of  the  Commission 

1.  Every  commission  is  competent  to  hold  the   examination 
in  whose  examination  district  — 

a.  The  university  is  situated  in  which  the  candidate  spent 

the  last  and  at  least  one  earlier  semester  of  his  uni- 
versity course,  or 

b.  The  candidate   expects  to  be  employed,  or  is  already 

employed,  in  public  school  service. 

2.  In  case  of  the  temporary  overburdening  of  one  commission, 
or  for  special  reasons,  the  consideration  of  applications  made  to  it 
may  be  assigned  by  the  minister  to  another  commission. 

3.  In  order  to  make  application  to  a  commission  which  does 
not  have  jurisdiction,  a  candidate  must  present  his  reasons  to 
the  minister  and  secure  his  approval. 

4.  Candidates  not  belonging  to  the  German  Empire  must,  in 
every  case,  secure  the  approval  of  the  minister  for  their  application. 

§  5.    Conditions  of  Admission 

i.  For  admission  to  the  examination  it  is  required  that  the 
candidate  shall  have  obtained  the  leaving  certificate  (Reifezeugniss) 
of  a  German  Gymnasium  or  Realgymnasium,  or  of  a  Prussian  Ober- 
realschule  or  of  an  Oberrealschule  situated  outside  of  Prussia,  which 
is  recognized  as  of  equal  rank ;  and  that  afterwards  he  shall  have 
pursued  his  professional  studies  regularly  at  least  six  semesters 
in  a  German  state  university  (§  7,  2).  With  regard  to  the  three 


36   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

semesters'  attendance  at  a  Prussian  university,  refer  to  the  cabinet 
order  of  June  30,  I84I.1 

2.  With  regard  to  the  provisions  given  under  i,  in  application 
for  the  teacher's  certificate  in  mathematics,  physics,  and  chemis- 
try, regular  study  in  a  German  technical  university  (Hochschttle) 
is  reckoned  equal  to  study  in  a  German  university  to  the  extent 
of  three  semesters. 

3.  A  candidate  who  seeks  the  teacher's  certificate  in  French  or 
English  and  who  has  studied  for  some  time  in  a  foreign  university 
with  French  or  English  lectures,  or  who   has  evidently  devoted 
himself,  in  lands  where  these  languages  are  spoken,  to  his  linguistic 
education,  along  with  scientific  pursuits,  can,  with  the  approval  of 
the  minister,  have  this  time  reckoned,  up  to  two  semesters,  as 
part  of  the  prescribed  period  of  study. 

§  6.    Application  for  Examination 

1.  A  written  application  for  examination  must  be  sent  by  the 
candidate  to  the  chairman  of  the  commission. 

In  the  application  it  must  be  stated  in  what  subjects  (§9,  i,  B) 
and  for  what  classes  (§  1 1)  the  candidate  expects  to  prove  his  quali- 
fications, and  in  what  fields  he  wishes  to  receive  the  subjects  for 
the  home  essays  in  the  general  examination  and  in  the  special- 
subject  examination. 

2.  With  the  application  must  be  inclosed:  — 

a.  A  biographical  sketch  written  in  the  candidate's  own 

hand,  in  which  is  given  the  full  name  of  the  candidate, 
the  position  of  his  father,  day  and  place  of  birth,  and 
religious  confession;  the  school  training  that  he  has 
had  must  be  indicated,  and  the  course  and  extent  of 
his  academic  studies  must  be  given  in  detail. 

b.  The  originals  of  the  certificates  which  show  the  fulfill- 

1  Except  in  special  cases  candidates  are  required  to  spend  at  least 
three  semesters  in  a  Frisian  university. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  37 

ment  of  the  conditions  for  admission  to  the  examina- 
tion (§  5). 

c.  A  statement  concerning  military  status. 

d.  In  case  the  application  is  made  more  than  one  year  after 

leaving  the  university,  an  official  statement  concerning 
the  manner  in  which  the  time  has  been  spent. 

e.  In  case  the  candidate  has  already  received  the  degree  of 

Doctor  of  Philosophy,  a  copy  of  the  Doctor's  disser- 
tation and  of  the  Doctor's  diploma. 
/.  In  case  the  candidate  has  published  other  writings  or 

treatises,  a  copy  of  these. 

3 .  With  the  application  for  another  examination,  or  for  an  exam- 
ination to  extend  the  teaching  right  to  higher  classes  or  to  additional 
subjects  (Wiederholungs-,  Erganzungs-,  oder  Erweiterungs-priifung) 
(§§37  an<i  38),  a  complete  account  must  be  given  of  all  the  earlier 
applications  for  examination  and  their  result.  If  it  should  turn 
out,  subsequently,  that  the  candidate  has  concealed  anything 
essential,  the  chairman  of  the  commission  is  empowered,  with  the 
approval  of  the  examining  board,  to  withdraw  the  already  granted 
permission  to  take  the  examination. 

§  7.    Admission  to  the  Examination 

1.  On  the  basis  of  the  application  the  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission decides  whether  the  candidate  is  to  be  admitted  to  the 
examination  or  not. 

2.  Admission  shall  be  denied  if  the  conditions  indicated  in 
§  5  have  not  been  fulfilled,  and  especially,  if  the  candidate,  as 
indicated  by  the  certificates  presented,  has  pursued  his  studies 
so  unmethodically  that  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  proper  prep- 
aration for  his  calling.     In  the  examination  of  this  question  it  is 
to  be  assumed  that  the  candidate,  as  a  rule  and  apart  from  special 
grounds  for  excuse,  has  taken  part  in  the  lectures  and  exercises 
essential  for  the  study  of  his  subjects,  and  that  he  has  heard 
besides  some  lectures  of  a  generally  educative  character. 


38      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Further,  admission  is  to  be  denied  if  well-grounded  doubts 
prevail  with  reference  to  the  moral  blamelessness  of  the  candidate. 

If  admission  is  denied,  the  candidate  can  appeal  within  fourteen 
days  to  the  decision  of  the  minister. 

If  admission  is  finally  denied,  the  chairman  of  the  commission 
has  to  note  the  fact  upon  the  academic  leaving  certificates. 

3.  If  a  candidate  is  admitted,  he  is  assigned  to  an  examination 
board.  The  chairman  has  to  inform  him  of  the  fact  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  communicate  with  him  concerning  the  home  theses 
of  the  examination,  required  according  to  §  28,  3  and  6,  and 
§  40,  i. 

§  8.    Extent  and  Form  of  the  Examination 

The  examination  consists  of  two  parts :  the  general  examina- 
tion and  the  special-subject  examination.  Both  are  written  and 
oral ;  the  home  theses  are  to  be  finished  before  the  oral  examination. 

In  the  general  examination  as  well  as  in  the  special-subject  exam- 
ination, the  conditions  of  instruction  in  the  higher  schools  are  to 
be  taken  into  account. 

§  9.    Subjects  of  Examination 

i.  The  subjects  of  the  examination  are:  — 

A.  In  the  general  examination,  for  every  candidate,  phi- 

losophy, pedagogy,  and  German  literature ;  further, 
for  those  candidates  who  belong  to  the  Christian  church, 
religion. 

B.  In    the  special-subject  examination  according  to    the 

choice  of  the  candidate:  i.  The  Christian  religion; 
2.  introduction  to  philosophy;  3.  German;  4.  Latin; 
5.  Greek;  6.  Hebrew;  7.  French;  8.  English; 
9.  history;  10.  geography;  n.  pure  mathematics; 
12.  applied  mathematics;  13.  physics;  14.  chemistry 
with  mineralogy;  15.  botany  with  zoology.  To 
these  are  added,  in  the  case  of  those  commissions  for 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  39 

which  examiners  are  appointed  for  the  following  sub- 
jects: 1 6.   Polish ;  and  17.  Danish. 

The  combinations  of  subjects,  chemistry  with  min- 
eralogy and  botany  with  zoology,  form  only  one  sub- 
ject in  the  examination. 

2.  The  choice  granted  to  the  candidate  according  to  i,  B,  is 
limited  by  the  condition  that,  among  the  subjects  indicated  by 
him,  there  must  always  be  one  of  the  following  combinations: 
Latin  and  Greek;  French  and  English  or  Latin;   history  and 
geography;  religion  and  Hebrew  or  Greek ;  pure  mathematics  and 
physics ;  chemistry  with  mineralogy  and  physics,  or,  instead  of 
physics,  botany  and  zoology ;  with  the  provision,  however,  that  in 
place  of  each  subject  named  in  the  first  three  combinations  and  in 
place  of  Hebrew  in  the  fourth,  German  may  be  substituted. 

3.  The  candidate  is  not  prohibited  from  choosing  a   greater 
number  of  subjects  than  is  required,  according  to  §  34,  i,  for 
undertaking  the  examination. 

4.  Applied  mathematics  can  be  chosen  only  in  connection  with 
pure  mathematics. 

§  10.    Extent  of  the  Requirements  in  the  General  Examination 

The  general  examination  does  not  aim  at  the  presentation  of 
professional  knowledge,  but  at  evidence  of  a  general  education  in  the 
spheres  concerned,  which  is  required  of  teachers  of  higher  schools. 

Accordingly  the  candidate,  in  the  thesis  required  of  him  accord- 
ing to  §  28,  i,  has  to  manifest  not  merely  adequate  information 
and  intelligent  judgment  concerning  the  subject  treated,  but  also 
to  show  that  he  is  capable  of  a  grammatically  correct,  logically 
arranged,  clear,  and  sufficiently  skillful  presentation. 

For  the  oral  examination  it  is  required  that  the  candidate  — 

i.  In  religion  show  himself  acquainted  with  the  content  and 
connection  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  have  a  general  survey  of  the 
history  of  the  Christian  church,  and  know  the  principal  doctrines 
of  his  confession. 


40   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

2.  In  philosophy  be  acquainted  with  the  most  important  facts  of 
its  history  and  with  the  principles  of  logic  and  psychology,  and 
shall  have  read  an  important  philosophical  treatise  with  under- 
standing. 

3.  In  pedagogy  show  that  he  is  acquainted  with  its  philosophical 
foundations  as  well  as  with  the  most  important  phenomena   in 
their  development  since  the  sixteenth  century,  and   has  already 
attained  some  understanding  of  the  problems  of  his  future  calling. 

4.  In  German  literature  demonstrate  that  he  is  acquainted 
with  its  general  course  of  development  since  the  beginning  of  its 
blossoming  period  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  that  since  leav- 
ing the  school  he  has  also  read  with  understanding  for  his  own 
further  education  the  important  works  of  this  time. 

Candidates  who  successfully  pass  the  special-subject  examina- 
tion in  religion,  introduction  to  philosophy,  or  German  are  ex- 
cused from  the  general  examination  in  the  same  subject. 

§  ii  to  §  27.    Extent  of  Requirements  in  the  Special-subject 
Examination 

Preliminary  Remark. — In  every  part  of  the  examination  ac- 
quaintance with  the  most  important  scientific  means  of  illustration 
[apparatus,  maps,  books,  etc.]  is  required. 

§  ii.    Gradation  in  Certification 

1.  Certification  in  the  individual  subjects  has  two    grades: 
one  (second  grade),  for  the  lower  and  middle  classes,  extends  to 
Untersecunda  inclusive;   the  other  (first  grade)  includes  also  the 
higher  classes  to  Oberprima  inclusive. 

2.  In  introduction  to  philosophy,  in  Hebrew,  and  in  applied 
mathematics,  on  account  of  their  position  in  the  program  of  studies, 
only  certification  of  first  grade  is  granted. 

For  botany  and  zoology,  which  do  not  constitute  a  special  sub- 
ject of  instruction  in  the  higher  classes,  first  grade  signifies  that  the 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  4! 

candidate  has   demonstrated   thorough   scientific   knowledge   in 
this  subject  (compare  §  9,  i,  B). 

3.  It  is  presupposed  in  every  case  that  the  requirements  for  a 
first-grade  certificate  are  at  least  equal  to  those  required  for  the 
second  grade  in  the  subject  concerned. 

§  12.    Religion 

A .  Of  candidates  who  desire  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  evan- 
gelical religion,  there  is  required:  — 

a.  For  second  grade:   familiarity  with   the  biblical  history 

of  the  Old  and  particularly  of  the  New  Testament  on 
the  basis  of  a  thorough  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures ; 
general  biblical  knowledge  and  acquaintance  with 
biblical  antiquities;  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the 
early  church  in  the  first  centuries  and  history  of  the 
Reformation;  understanding  of  the  institutions  of 
the  evangelical  church  and  its  doctrines  according  to 
the  fundamental  writings,  especially  the  Heidelberg 
catechism  and  the  Augsburg  confession  of  Luther, 
and  particularly  also,  familiarity  with  their  character- 
istic features;  acquaintance  with  the  order  of  the 
church  year  as  well  as  with  the  evangelical  psalms 
and  the  liturgy. 

b.  For  the  first   grade,  in  addition:   the  ability,  gained  by 

the  study  of  an  introduction  to  theology  (Einleitungs- 
wissenschaff) ,  of  biblical  theology,  and  of  scientific 
exegesis,  to  explain  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  especially 
the  New  Testament  in  the  original ;  an  acquaintance, 
resting  upon  a  survey  of  the  historical  development 
of  the  church,  with  the  present  evangelical  church  with 
reference  to  its  creed  and  constitution  in  distinction 
from  other  religious  societies;  knowledge  of  its  faith 
and  customs,  especially  with  reference  to  their  histor- 
ical development,  and  the  ability  to  show  their  biblical 
foundation  and  to  present  them  simply  and  clearly. 


42   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

B.  Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  the 
Catholic  religion,  there  is  required:  — 

a.  For  second  grade:   familiarity  with  the  biblical  history 

of  the  Old  and  especially  of  the  New  Testament; 
biblical  knowledge  and  acquaintance  with  the  sacred 
antiquities  of  the  people  of  Israel;  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  most  important  periods  of  church  history ; 
familiarity  with  the  teachings  of  the  Catholic  faith 
and  customs  as  they  are  given  in  the  Roman  cate- 
chism ;  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  church  year, 
which  qualifies  for  the  instruction  of  pupils  in  the 
spirit  of  the  individual  festival  periods. 

b.  For  first  grade,  in  addition :  the  ability  gained  through 

the  study  of  introduction  to  theology,  as  well  as  of 
biblical  history  and  theology,  to  explain  suggested 
portions  of  the  New  Testament  according  to  the 
original;  the  ability  to  discuss  simply  and  clearly 
questions  of  faith  and  customs  with  reference  to  the 
positive  and  apologetic  foundation  of  the  Catholic 
teaching;  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  Catholic 
church  and  of  the  development  of  its  teaching  in  dis- 
tinction from  other  churches  and  religious  commu- 
nities, and  the  ability  to  present  the  significance  of 
the  authoritative  facts  and  personalities  in  the  whole 
development  of  the  Christian  church. 

§  13.     PhUosophiscke  Propadeutik  [an  elementary  course  in 
philosophy] 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  secure  certification  in  Philosopkische 
Propadeutik  it  is  required  that  they  meet  in  a  thoroughly  satis- 
factory manner  the  conditions  set  for  the  general  examination  in 
philosophical  training  (§10),  especially  in  the  home  essay,  the  sub- 
ject of  which,  for  these  candidates,  must  be  chosen  from  the  sphere 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  43 

of  philosophy ;  and,  further,  that,  along  with  a  general  survey  of 
the  history  of  philosophy  and  of  the  problems  of  its  principal  divi- 
sions, they  possess  thorough  knowledge  of  at  least  one  of  these  prob- 
lems or  of  one  of  the  most  important  philosophical  systems ;  and 
that  they  show  the  ability  to  comprehend  philosophical  questions 
clearly  and  definitely. 

§  14.    German 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  German, 
there  is  required:  — 

a.  For  second  grade :  thorough  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  new 

High  German  grammar,  and  acquaintance  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  new  High  German  written  language ;  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  classical  works  of  the  newer  literature, 
especially  in  the  fields  applicable  to  the  training  of  youth, 
and  a  survey  of  the  course  of  development  of  new  High 
German  literature;  acquaintance  with  the  outlines  of 
rhetoric,  poetics,  and  metrics,  as  well  as  with  the  old  Ger- 
man legends  important  for  the  school. 

b.  For  first  grade,  in  addition :  a  mastery  of  Middle  High  Ger- 

man which  qualifies  for  reading  the  easier  works  without 
difficulty  and  for  explaining  them  with  grammatical  and 
lexical  accuracy;  a  knowledge  of  the  course  of  develop- 
ment of  German  literature  as  a  whole,  at  least  for  the 
Middle  High  German  and  newer  period,  based  upon  ex- 
tended reading;  familiarity  with  poetics  and  German 
metrics,  as  well  as  with  those  principles  of  rhetoric  a 
knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  for  instruction  hi  the 
preparation  of  German  essays  in  the  higher  classes;  in 
addition,  according  to  the  choice  of  the  candidate,  either 
acquaintance  with  the  principal  results  of  historical  gram- 
mar and  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  Gothic  and  Old 
High  German,  or  certification  in  introduction  to  philosophy 
(§  13). 


44   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

§  15.    Latin  and  Greek 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  secure  certification  in  Latin  and 
Greek  are  required:  — 

For  second  grade:  thorough  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek 
grammar  and  practice  in  the  written  use  of  both  languages  to  the 
extent  of  readiness  in  translating  suitable  exercises  with  gram- 
matical correctness  and,  at  least  as  far  as  Latin  is  concerned, 
without  notable  defects  in  style;  the  ability,  gained  from  a 
systematic  and  thorough  reading  of  the  classics,  to  understand 
extracts  from  the  writings  of  authors  suitable  for  Secunda  in  the 
Gymnasia,  with  grammatical  and  lexical  accuracy,  and  except 
in  places  of  special  difficulty,  to  translate  fluently.  Candidates 
must  be  so  well  acquainted  with  Greek  and  Roman  history,  in- 
cluding the  history  of  literature,  with  antiquities,  mythology,  and 
metrics,  that  they  can  give  the  essential  explanations  of  school 
authors  for  middle  classes,  and  use  good  sources  intelligently  when 
preparing  lessons. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  a  connected,  well-founded  knowl- 
edge of  Latin  and  Greek  grammar ;  facility  in  the  written  use  of 
Latin;  grammatical  certainty  in  writing  Greek,  besides  some 
practice  in  speaking  Latin ;  considerable  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  classics,  especially  of  those  within  the  range  of  reading 
for  Gymnasia,  along  with  scientific  training  in  the  method  of  ex- 
planation ;  familiarity  with  metrics  as  far  as  the  poets  to  be  read 
in  Gymnasia  are  concerned,  besides  some  practice  in  the  proper 
recitation  of  verses ;  knowledge  of  the  development  of  Greek  and 
Roman  literature,  especially  of  the  classical  period ;  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  chief  periods  of  Roman  and  Greek  history,  state 
institutions,  private  life,  religion,  mythology,  and  the  philosophy 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans;  understanding  of  archaeology  as  far 
as  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  lessons  more  interesting,  through 
proper  choice  of  means  of  illustration.  Candidates  must  further- 
more show  familiarity  with  the  development  of  philology. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  45 

§  16.    Hebrew 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  Hebrew, 
there  is  required  a  scientific,  coherent  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
etymology  and  grammar,  and  familiarity,  founded  on  individual 
readings,  with  a  large  part  of  the  historic,  poetic,  and  prophetic 
scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament;  ability  to  understand  and  to 
translate  with  grammatical  and  lexical  exactitude  a  passage  not 
too  difficult  from  the  Old  Testament  written  in  a  text  marked 
with  points;  knowledge  of  the  chief  points  of  the  history  of  the 
people  of  Israel  and  of  the  Old  Testament.  Proper  emphasis  should 
be  attached  to  the  right  form  and  legibility  of  the  Hebrew  hand- 
writing (§  29). 

§  17.    French 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  French, 
there  is  required  a  knowledge  of  elementary  Latin  grammar,  in 
addition  to  ability  to  understand  and  to  translate  at  least  easy 
passages  from  school  authors,  such  as  Caesar.  Furthermore :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  phonetics, 
a  thorough  mastery  of  correct  pronunciation,  familiarity  with 
etymology,  syntax,  and  synonyms,  mastery  of  a  sufficient  fund  of 
words  and  idioms,  and  some  experience  in  the  actual  use  of  the 
spoken  language ;  general  understanding  of  the  metrical  structure 
of  modern  French  verses,  and  a  survey  of  the  development  of 
French  literature  since  the  seventeenth  century ;  acquaintance 
with  the  most  important  works  of  the  most  prominent  poets  and 
prose  writers ;  ability  to  translate  ordinary  writers  into  good  Ger- 
man, and  to  make  reproductions  in  the  foreign  language  free  from 
errors  in  grammar  and  style. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  in  the  written  and  oral  use  of 
the  language,  not  only  absolute  grammatical  certainty  along  with 
scientific  justification  of  this  grammatical  knowledge,  but  also 
familiarity  with  a  larger  vocabulary  and  more  idioms  of  the  lan- 
guage, as  well  as  sufficient  ability  to  apply  them  for  all  educa- 


46      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

tional  purposes ;  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  language  since  its  separation  from  the  Latin ;  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  general  development  of  French  literature  in 
connection  with  detailed  readings  of  several  prominent  literary 
works  from  earlier  periods  and  the  present  time ;  insight  into  the 
laws  of  French  metrical  structure  of  ancient  and  modern  tunes, 
and  knowledge  of  the  history  of  France  as  far  as  it  is  required  for 
the  appropriate  explanation  of  ordinary  school  authors. 

NOTE.  —  An  especially  thorough  knowledge  of  modern  litera- 
ture and  a  superior  command  of  the  modern  language  may  com- 
pensate for  a  less  thorough  knowledge  of  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  language. 

§  18.    English 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  English, 
there  is  required  a  knowledge  of  elementary  Latin  grammar,  in 
addition  to  ability  to  understand  and  to  translate  at  least  easy 
passages  from  school  authors,  such  as  Caesar.  Furthermore :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  phonetics 
and  a  thorough  mastery  of  correct  pronunciation,  familiarity 
with  etymology,  syntax,  and  synonyms;  mastery  of  a  sufficient 
fund  of  words  and  idioms,  and  some  experience  in  the  actual  use 
of  the  spoken  language ;  a  survey  of  the  development  of  English 
literature  since  Shakespeare;  thorough  acquaintance  with  some 
of  the  most  important  works  of  the  most  prominent  poets  and 
prose  writers;  ability  to  translate  ordinary  writers  into  good 
German,  and  to  make  reproductions  hi  the  foreign  language  free 
from  errors  in  grammar  and  style. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  in  the  written  and  oral  use  of 
the  language,  not  only  absolute  grammatical  confidence  along  with 
scientific  justification  of  this  knowledge,  but  also  familiarity  with 
a  larger  vocabulary  and  more  idioms  of  the  language,  as  well  as 
a  sufficient  ability  to  apply  them  for  all  educational  purposes ;  a 
thorough  insight  into  the  historical  development  of  the  Ian- 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  47 

guage  since  the  old  English  period;  knowledge  of  the  develop- 
ment of  literature  in  connection  with  extensive  readings  of  several 
literary  works  from  earlier  periods  and  modern  times;  under- 
standing of  the  laws  of  English  metrical  structure  from  ancient 
and  modern  times,  and  knowledge  of  England's  history  as  far  as  it 
is  required  for  the  appropriate  explanation  of  the  ordinary  school 
authors. 

NOTE.  —  An  especially  thorough  knowledge  of  modern  litera- 
ture and  a  superior  command  of  the  modern  language  may  com- 
pensate for  a  less  thorough  knowledge  of  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  language. 

§  19.    History 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  hi  history, 
there  is  required  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek  as  far  as  they  are 
necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  historical  sources  written 
in  these  languages.  Furthermore :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  a  complete  survey,  founded  on  systematic 
geographical  and  chronological  knowledge,  of  events  related  to 
universal  history,  especially  of  Greece  and  Rome,  Germany  and 
Prussia ;  acquaintance  with  the  development  of  the  Constitution 
in  Sparta,  Athens,  and  Rome,  and  particularly  in  Germany  and 
Prussia ;  a  comprehensive  understanding  of  the  Prussian  state  and 
of  the  German  imperial  constitution,  and  familiarity  with  some 
of  the  most  important  works  on  national  history. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the 
course  of  development  of  universal  history  and  understanding  of 
the  relations  and  internal  connections  of  events;  evidence  of  a 
more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  history  of  constitutions  and  civ- 
ilizations, —  in  antiquity,  with  reference  to  the  Roman-Greek 
history,  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  modern  times,  with  reference  to 
the  national  history ;  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the  most 
important  industrial  and  social  changes  since  the  end  of  the 
Thirty  Years  War ;  familiarity  with  the  most  important  historical 
sources  for  the  chief  topics  to  be  studied,  and  with  the  principles 


48      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

of  their  use  as  well  as  with  the  literary  sources  of  the  science  of 
history  and  with  important  modern  historical  works. 

§  20.    Geography 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  geography, 
there  is  required :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 
laws  of  physical,  mathematical,  and  political  geography,  and  of 
physiography ;  a  broad  knowledge  of  the  history  of  discoveries  and 
of  the  most  important  tendencies  of  world  commerce  in  different 
periods,  and  especially  of  the  development  of  the  German  colonies ; 
familiarity  with  the  use  of  the  globe,  reliefs,  and  maps;  ability 
to  explain  the  fundamental  facts  of  mathematical  geography  by 
means  of  simple  illustrative  material,  and  some  facility  in  map 
drawing. 

For  the  first  grade,  hi  addition :  familiarity  with  the  principles 
of  mathematical  geography  and,  as  far  as  they  can  be  proved  by 
elementary  mathematics,  with  their  proofs  also;  knowledge  of 
the  physical,  and  the  most  important  geological  relations  of 
physiography;  connected  knowledge  of  the  political  geography 
of  the  present  time ;  survey  of  the  development  of  the  civilized 
nations,  geographically  considered ;  and  acquaintance  with  the 
chief  facts  of  ethnology. 

§  21.    Pure  Mathematics 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  mathe- 
matics, there  is  required :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  a  thorough  knowledge  of  elementary 
mathematics  and  familiarity  with  analytical  geometry  of  planes, 
especially  with  the  principal  properties  of  conic  sections  as  well 
as  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  differential  and  integral 
calculus. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  such  an  acquaintance  with  the 
principles  of  higher  geometry,  arithmetic,  and  algebra,  of  higher 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  49 

analysis  and  analytical  mechanics,  that  the  candidate  can  solve 
a  fairly  difficult  problem  in  this  field  without  assistance. 

§  22.    Applied  Mathematics 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  applied 
mathematics,  there  is  required  in  addition  to  a  certificate  in  pure 
mathematics:  knowledge  of  descriptive  geometry  including  the 
principles  of  central  projection,  and  corresponding  facility  in 
drawing ;  familiarity  with  the  mathematical  methods  of  technical 
mechanics,  especially  with  graphical  statics,  with  elementary  sur- 
veying and  the  elements  of  advanced  surveying,  and  with  the 
theory  of  adjustment  of  errors  in  observation. 

§  23.    Physics 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  physics, 
there  is  required  :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  knowledge  of  the  more  important  phe- 
nomena and  laws  of  the  whole  sphere  of  this  science,  as  well  as  the 
ability  to  prove  these  laws  mathematically  as  far  as  this  is  possible 
without  the  application  of  higher  mathematics ;  acquaintance  with 
the  apparatus  required  for  school  instruction  and  practice  in  its 
use. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  a  more  exact  knowledge  of 
experimental  physics  and  its  applications;  familiarity  with  the 
fundamental  investigations  in  one  of  the  more  important  fields  of 
theoretical  physics,  and  a  general  survey  of  the  whole  sphere  of 

this  science. 

§  24.    Chemistry  and  Mineralogy 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  chemistry 
and  mineralogy,  there  is  required :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  chemical  com- 
binations and  of  the  most  important  theories  of  their  constitution ; 
familiarity  with  the  separation,  properties,  and  inorganic  com- 
binations of  the  more  important  elements  with  their  significance 

£ 


50      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

in  the  economy  of  nature  and  with  the  most  important  facts  in 
chemical  technology;  practice  in  experimenting ;  knowledge  of 
the  most  common  minerals  in  regard  to  then:  crystalline  form, 
their  physical  and  chemical  properties,  and  their  practical  use,  as 
well  as  with  the  most  important  mountain  ranges  and  geological 
formations,  especially  with  those  of  Germany. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of 
inorganic  chemistry  and  of  those  combinations  within  the  range 
of  organic  chemistry  which  are  of  greater  significance  for  physio- 
logical or  technical  use,  as  well  as  familiarity  with  the  most  im- 
portant chemical  methods  and  theories;  facility  in  qualitative 
analysis  and  sufficient  practice  in  quantitative  analysis,  including 
elementary  analysis  of  organic  materials. 

§  25.     Botany  and  Zoology 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  botany 
and  zoology,  there  is  required :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  knowledge  gained  through  personal  ob- 
servation of  the  more  common  home  plants,  and  of  local  animals, 
and  those  of  particularly  characteristic  forms  from  foreign  coun- 
tries; knowledge  of  anatomy  and  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
physiology  of  the  human  body,  with  special  reference  to  hygiene ; 
a  survey  of  the  classification  of  the  plant  and  animal  kingdoms; 
knowledge  of  the  most  important  natural  families  and  of  some 
representatives  of  the  lower  plant  world,  as  well  as  of  the  most 
important  classes  of  the  vertebrates  and  articulate  animals,  also 
of  some  representatives  of  the  rest  of  the  animal  kingdom  and 
their  geographical  distribution ;  familiarity  with  the  fundamental 
principles  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  biology  of  plants,  and 
knowledge  of  the  structure  and  the  life  of  animals,  also  some  prac- 
tice hi  drawing  animal  and  plant  forms. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  a  greater  familiarity  with  the 
principles  of  anatomy,  physiology,  and  biology  of  plants  and 
animals,  as  well  as  with  the  classifications  of  the  animal  and  plant 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  51 

kingdoms;    a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  man. 

NOTE.  —  The  certificate  to  teach  botany  and  zoology  may  be 
given  for  the  first  grade  (in  the  sense  of  §  34,  i),  even  if  the  candi- 
date has  the  teaching  license  in  only  one  of  the  two  subjects  for 
the  first  grade,  and  in  the  other  subject  for  the  second  grade. 

§  26.     Polish 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  Polish, 
there  is  required :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  certainty  in  the  grammar  of  the  modern 
Polish  language ;  knowledge  of  the  course  of  development  of  Polish 
literature,  and  familiarity  gained  through  personal  reading  with 
the  most  prominent  literary  productions,  especially  with  those 
from  the  sixteenth  century  on;  ability  to  write  modern  Polish 
correctly;  and  facility  in  conducting  conversation  lessons. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  more  extensive  reading  and 
acquaintance,  founded  on  the  most  important  facts  of  old  Slovenian 
phonetics  and  syntax,  with  the  course  of  development  of  Polish 
phonetics  and  syntax  and  familiarity  with  the  formation  and 
significance  of  modern  Polish  words. 

§  27.     Danish 

Of  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  Danish, 
there  is  required :  — 

For  the  second  grade:  knowledge  and  grammatical  understand- 
ing of  that  form  of  the  Danish  language  which  educated  Danish 
people  of  the  present  use  in  conversation  and  writing ;  ability  to 
speak  and  write  the  Danish  language,  on  the  whole,  correctly ;  a 
more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Danish  literature  since  Holberg, 
founded  on  personal  reading  and  familiarity  with  the  so-called 
Provindslove  and  Kaempevise  (Folkeviser)  of  the  older  times. 

For  the  first  grade,  in  addition :  such  knowledge  of  the  relation 
of  the  Danish  language  to  German  (High  and  Low  German)  as  is 


52   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

necessary  for  the  scientific  understanding  of  the  present  form  of 
the  Danish  language. 

§  28.     Theses  (Schriftliche  Hausarbeiten) 

1.  The  candidate  receives  two  theses  for  preparation  at  home: 
one  in  a  subject  required  for  the  general  examination  (§  10)  and 
the  other  in  a  subject  for  which  the  candidate  seeks  a  certificate 
of  the  first  grade.     Special  wishes  of  the  candidates  concerning 
the  choice  of  the  theses  (§6,  i)  are  to  be  respected  as  far  as  possible. 

2.  Examination  papers  in   the  domain  of  classical  philology 
must  be  written  in  Latin;    those  from  modern  languages  in  the 
language  concerned,  and  all  others  must  be  written  in  German. 

3.  A  limit  of  sixteen  weeks,  beginning  with  the  day  of  delivery 
of  the  themes,  is  granted  to  finish  both  theses.     At  the  expira- 
tion of  that  term  at  the  latest  a  fair  copy  of  these  theses  must  be 
presented  to  the  chairman  of  the  examination  committee.     The 
committee  can  grant  an  extension  of  that  term  up  to  sixteen  weeks, 
if  a  plausible  excuse  is  given  at  least  a  week  before  the  expiration 
of  the  term.     The  application  for  another  prolongation  of  the 
time  must  be  made  in  due  time  to  the  chairman  of  the  examina- 
tion committee  and  needs  the  approval  of  the  minister. 

If  the  candidate  neglects  to  hand  in  his  papers,  he  is  considered 
not  to  have  passed  the  examination.  If,  however,  afterwards 
valid  reasons  for  his  failure  can  be  given  to  the  chairman  of  the 
examination  committee,  he  is  excused,  and  new  thesis  subjects 
are  given  him. 

4.  After  having  finished  each  thesis,  the  candidate  must  declare 
that  he  has  prepared  it  alone,  and  that  he  has  used  no  other  helps 
than  those  quoted  by  him.     The  same  declaration  must  be  given 
in  regard  to  the  drawings  handed  in  (§  30,  2).     If  it  is  proved  that 
this  declaration  is  not  true,  the  examination  is  considered  a  failure ; 
if  only  after  delivery  of  the  certificate  it  is  discovered  that  the 
declaration  was  not  true,  disciplinary  measures  are  used. 

5.  The  chairman  of  the  examination  committee  appoints  the 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  S3 

members,  who  are  responsible  for  the  criticisms  of  the  individual 
examination  papers. 

6.  A  dissertation  (§  6,  2,  e  and  /)  written  by  the  candidate,  to 
which  the  regulations  under  4  would  have  to  be  applied,  can,  upon 
request,  be  used  as  one  of  the  two  theses.    After  having  spoken 
with  the  candidate  concerning  the  subject,  to  which  the  regulations 
under  2  would  apply,  the  chairman  of  the  examination  committee 
decides  such  a  request. 

If  a  Prussian  faculty  of  philosophy  has  recognized  the  disserta- 
tion presented  as  sufficient  for  the  attainment  of  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Philosophy,  there  still  remains  the  question  whether 
this  dissertation  can  be  considered  with  reference  to  its  content 
as  equivalent  to  a  thesis. 

7.  A  thesis  may  not  be  used  for  the  attainment  of  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  or  for  publication  until  the  examination  is 
finished  and  the  certificate  has  been  delivered.     All  theses  are  to  re- 
main with  the  documents  of  the  commission,  but  the  authors  can 
have  copies  made  at  their  own  expense. 

§  29.    Examination  Papers  (Klausurarbeiteri) 
The  board  of  examiners  may  ask  the  candidate  to  prepare  in  a 
comparatively  short  time  (three  hours  at  most)  an  examination 
paper  on  any  subject  of  the  special  examination.     For  foreign 
languages  the  preparation  of  such  papers  is,  as  a  rule,  obligatory. 

§  30.    Evidence  of  Practical  Ability 

1.  Acquaintance  with  the  most  important  apparatus  and  its 
manipulation  (§  23)  must  be  proved  through  performance  of  sev- 
eral of  the  easier  experiments ;  practice  in  chemical  experiments 
(§  24),  through  performance  of  an  analysis,  unless  the  official  cer- 
tificates give  evidence  of  the  necessary  practice.    Practice  in  the 
manipulation  of  geographical  means  of  illustration  has  to  be  proved 
in  the  same  way. 

2.  In  order  to  show  ability  in  map  drawing  (§  20),  in  geometri- 


54      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS  FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

cal  drawing  (§  22),  ancTin  simple  drawing  of  animal  and  plant 
forms  (§  25),  candidates  who  wish  to  qualify  in  these  subjects 
must  present  with  their  theses  drawings  made  entirely  by  them- 
selves (see  §  28,  4). 

§  31.     Withdrawal  from  the  Oral  Examination 

1.  If  the  theses  (§  28  and  §  29)  of  a  candidate  leave  no  doubt 
whatever  that  even  in  case  of  a  very  favorable  result  of  the  oral 
examination  the  candidate  could  not  even  be  admitted  to  a  sup- 
plementary examination  (§  34,  2),  the  examination  committee  is 
free  to  refuse  to  admit  him  to  the  oral  examination  and  to  declare 
the  examination  a  failure.     Under  such  circumstances  they  still 
have  this  right,  even  if  the  candidate  himself  wishes  to  withdraw 
from  the  examination. 

2.  Admission  to  the  oral  examination  is  not  to  be  given  if  sub- 
sequently valid  doubts  as  to  the  candidate's  moral  conduct  have 
arisen  (§  7,  2).    The  chairman  of  the  examination  committee  is 
competent  to  decide  such  a  case. 

§  32.    Summons  to  the  Oral  Examination 

1.  The  summons  of  the  candidate  to  the  oral  examination  and 
the  inquiries  (§  29  and  §  30)  connected  with  this  examination  must 
be  communicated  in  writing  by  the  chairman  of  the  examination 
committee. 

2.  If  the  candidate  neglects  the  appointed  date,  he  is  consid- 
ered not  to  have  passed  the  examination.     If,  however,  valid 
reasons  for  his  nonappearance  can  afterwards  be  given  to  the 
chairman  of  the  board  of  examiners,  he  is  excused,  and  a  new  time 
for  the  oral  examination  must  be  appointed. 

§  33.    Conduct  of  the  Oral  Examination 

i.  The  order  of  succession  of  the  parts  of  the  oral  examination, 
including  the  requirements  (§  29  and  §  30)  connected  with  it,  is 
fixed  by  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  examiners. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  55 

Upon  a  special  request  of  the  candidate,  to  be  handed  in  with 
the  theses,  the  chairman  of  the  committee  can  separate  the  general 
examination  and  the  subject  examination  within  a  summer  semes- 
ter or  a  winter  semester,  so  that  there  is  at  most  three  months 
between  them. 

It  is  to  be  especially  noted,  however,  that  the  result  of  such  a 
subject  examination  can  be  communicated  orally  to  the  candidate 
as  soon  as  it  is  finished,  but  that  a  certificate  can  in  no  case  be  given 
before  the  close  of  the  general  examination  (§  35). 

2.  At  the  general  examination  as  well  as   at   every  subject 
examination  at  least  three  members  of  the  committee,  including 
the  chairman,  must,  as  a  rule,  be  present.     Unavoidable  exceptions 
must  be  mentioned  in  the  minutes ;  the  presence  of  two  members 
is,  however,  absolutely  necessary. 

3.  In  the  general  examination  not  more  than  four  candidates, 
in  the  subject  examination  not  more  than  two  candidates,  may, 
as  a  rule,  be  admitted  together. 

4.  It  is  not  permitted  to  distribute  the  different  phases  of  one 
subject  among  several  examiners;   on  the  contrary,  it  is  recom- 
mended, where  possible,  to  assign  the  examination  in  closely  related 
subjects  (see  §  9,  2)  to  one  person. 

5.  The  special  examination  in  French,  English,   Polish,   or 
Danish  is  to  be  conducted  in  part  in  the  language  concerned,  so  that 
the  facility  of  the  candidate  in  its  oral  use  can  be  shown. 

6.  During  the  examination  minutes  of  the  general  examination 
and  of  the  examination  in  special  subjects  must  be  made  and 
signed  by  the  members  of  the  committee  who  are  present.    The 
minutes  remain  with  the  documents  of  the  commission. 

7.  The  result  of  the  general  examination  must  be  determined 
for  every  candidate  according  to  his  theses  and  the  work  done 
by  him  in  the  oral  examination,  if  necessary,  through  a  majority 
vote  of  the  members  of  the  committee ;  slight  mistakes  in  one  part 
of  the  examination  can  be  offset  by  good  work  done  in  other  parts, 
and  the  general  impression  of  the  work  done  by  the  candidate 


56   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

has  to  be  taken  into  consideration ;  if  the  votes  are  even,  the  chair- 
man decides  the  matter.  At  the  close  of  the  minutes  of  the  general 
examination  it  must  be  stated  whether  the  candidate  has  passed 
the  examination  or  not.  If  the  work  done  by  the  candidate  is 
very  much  better  than  is  required  in  the  general  examination, 
the  committee  can  certificate  him  for  instruction  in  the  subject 
concerned. 

Immediately  after  each  subject  examination  the  examiner  must, 
on  the  basis  of  the  answers  given  by  the  candidate,  state  his 
opinion  in  the  minutes  whether  the  certificate  can  be  given  and 
for  which  of  the  two  grades  (§  n).  The  examiner  is  permitted  to 
justify  his  opinion,  and  the  other  members  of  the  committee  who 
were  present  at  the  examination  are  also  permitted  to  express 
a  dissenting  judgment.  The  candidate  may  be  certificated  to 
instruct  in  the  first  grade,  though  in  his  application  he  intended 
to  qualify  only  for  the  second  grade. 

8.  If  the  candidate  withdraws  during  the  oral  examination, 
the  committee  has  to  decide  whether  the  examination  is  a  failure 
or  whether  a  new  date  can  be  assigned  him. 

§  34.     The  General  Restdt  of  the  Examination 

At  the  close  of  the  entire  examination,  the  examination  com- 
mittee must  decide  on  the  basis  of  the  judgment  recorded  in  the 
minutes,  the  result  of  the  general  examination  and  of  the  subject 
examination,  whether  the  candidate  has  passed  the  examination 
or  not. 

i.  The  candidate  has  passed  the  examination  if  his  general 
examination  was  satisfactory  and  if  he  qualified  in  at  least  one  of 
the  subjects  named  in  §  9,  i,  J5,  1-15  for  the  first  grade  and  in  two 
more  subjects  for  the  second  grade ;  consult  §  9,  2  on  the  required 
combination  of  subjects. 

If  the  candidate  has  passed  the  examination,  the  examination 
committee  has  to  decide  whether,  according  to  the  entire  result  of 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  57 

the  written  and  oral  examination,  the  certificate  is  to  be  marked 
satisfactory,  good,  or  excellent.  If  the  certificate  is  to  be  marked 
satisfactory,  good,  or  excellent,  the  candidate  must  have  qualified 
in  at  least  two  of  the  subjects  quoted  under  §  9,  i,  B,  1-15  for  the 
first  grade ;  if,  however,  the  examination  in  the  introduction  to 
philosophy  has  served  to  qualify  the  candidate  for  German,  it  may 
not  be  counted  again  (§  14,  b). 

2.  If  the  examination  has  not  been  passed  or  has  been  con- 
sidered equal  to  a  failure,  the  examination  committee  has  to  decide 
whether  another  examination  is  permitted  (§  37),  and  whether 
a  repetition  of  the  entire  examination  (Wiederholungspriifung)  or 
only  a  supplementary  examination  (Erganzungspriifung)  is  neces- 
sary. 

The  examination  committee  must  determine  the  time  before  the 
expiration  of  which  the  examinations  (Wiederholungs-  oder  Erg&n- 
zungsprufung)  must  take  place. 

§  35.    Certificate 

A  certificate  of  the  result  of  the  examination  must  be  given  to 
the  candidate  in  any  case,  whether  he  has  passed  the  examination 
or  not,  or  whether  the  examination  has  been  considered  equal  to 
a  failure. 

In  the  certificate  the  full  name  of  the  candidate,  the  occupation 
and  the  home  of  his  father,  day  and  place  of  birth,  confession,  and 
the  course  of  education  must  be  given ;  it  must  be  especially  stated 
where  and  when  the  candidate  passed  the  leaving  examination 
(Reifepriifung),  at  what  universities  he  studied  and  how  long  at 
each,  when  he  applied  for  admission  to  the  examination,  and  when 
he  finished  it ;  if  the  candidate  has  served  in  the  army,  when  and 
where  he  served  must  be  stated. 

The  report  on  the  candidate's  theses  or  on  the  dissertation 
which  has  been  considered  the  equivalent  must  be  added  also 
(§28,  6),  and:  — 


58      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

1.  If  the  examination  has  been  passed,  the  statement  regarding 
it  according  to  §34,1,  without  reasons  for  the  result,  but  with  the 
exact  statement  of  the  subject  and  the  grade  for  which  the  candi- 
date has  qualified. 

2.  If  the  examination  has  not  been  passed,  the  report  concern- 
ing it,  according  to  §  34,  2,  must  be  stated;  the  time  must  also  be 
stated  within  which  the  application  for  the  second  examination  or 
for  the  supplementary  examination  has  to  be  made;  for  the  supple- 
mentary examination,  on  the  one  hand,  the  parts  of  the  examina- 
tion in  which  the  candidate  has  satisfied  the  requirements,  as  in  i, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  parts  of  the  examination  for  which 
the  candidate  has  to  pass  a  supplementary  examination,  have  to  be 
accurately  stated. 

3.  If  the  examination  has  been  considered  equal  to  a  failure,  the 
reasons  therefor  have  to  be  stated  also  according  to  §  28,  3  and  4 ; 
§3i,  1 5  §32,  2;  §33,8. 

§  36.    Note  on  Academic  Certificates 

In  returning  the  academic  certificates  (§  6,  2,  b)  to  the  candi- 
date, the  chairman  of  the  commission  must  briefly  state  upon 
them  the  result  of  the  application  and  the  examination. 

§  37.    Second  Examination  and  Supplementary  Examination 

1.  The  same  commission  before  which  the  first  examination  was 
passed  is  competent  for  the  second  examination  as  well  as  for  the 
supplementary  examination  (§  34,  2).     Admission  to  one  of  these 
examinations  before  another  commission  can  only  be  granted  ex- 
ceptionally and  needs  the  approval  of  the  minister. 

2.  The  application  for  a  second  examination  or  a  supplementary 
examination  must  be  made  at  the  latest  within  two  years  after 
delivery  of  the  certificate  of  the  preceding  examination.     If  the 
second  examination  or  the  supplementary  examination  is  a  failure 
or  is  considered  equal  to  a  failure,  another  examination  can  only 
be  permitted  with  the  approval  of  the  minister. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  59 

3.  In  every  case  a  certificate  concerning  the  result  of  the  sec- 
ond examination  or  the  supplementary  examination  has  to  be 
given,  in  which  reference  should  be  made  to  the  certificate  which 
the  candidate  has  already  won.  If  the  examination  was  passed, 
the  regulations  under  §  35,  i  concerning  certification  are  to  be 
applied. 

§  38.    Extension  Examination 

1.  Any  one  who  has  passed  the  examination  for  the  position  of 
a  teacher  for  higher  schools  can  within  the  six  following  years 
apply  for  an  extension  examination  either  to  qualify  for  instruc- 
tion in  other  subjects,  or  to  extend  the  certification  already  granted 
in  order  to  raise  the  final  standard  of  the  certificate,  if  the  royal 
provincial    school   board  (Konigliches  Promnzial  Schulkollegium) 
in  whose  district  the  person  concerned  is  already  occupied  or  will 
soon  be  occupied  in  the  service  of  the  school,  recommends  admis- 
sion to  such  an  examination. 

2.  The  commission  before  which  the  candidate  formerly  passed 
the  examination  for  the  higher  schools  and  the  commission  of  the 
advising  royal  provincial  school  board  are  responsible   for   the 
extension  examination. 

3.  In  each  of    the  two  cases  quoted  under  i,  an  extension 
examination  can  be  tried  only  once. 

4.  As  to  the  certificate  to  be  given,  the  regulations  stated  under 
§  37,  3  and  §  34,  i  are  to  be  rationally  applied. 

§  39.    Special  Regulations  for  Clergymen  and  for  Candidates 
in  Theology 

Candidates  for  the  ministerial  office  and  clergymen  of  one  of 
the  Christian  churches  who  have  passed  the  examinations  for  the 
ministry  obtain  a  certificate  for  instruction  in  higher  schools  if 
they  can  prove  in  an  oral  examination  their  qualification  for  in- 
struction in  religion  for  the  first  grade,  and  if  they  can  prove  further- 
more through  a  thesis  and  an  oral  examination  the  qualification  for 


60   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

instruction  in  Hebrew  (§  16)  and  in  one  of  the  subjects  quoted  un- 
der §  9,  i,  B,  under  2  to  5,  7  to  n,  and  13  to  15.  If  the  candidate 
wishes  to  qualify  for  instruction  in  the  first  grade  in  another  sub- 
ject besides  religion  and  Hebrew,  a  thesis  on  the  subject  concerned 
is  required  (§  28). 

In  granting  the  certificate  the  regulations  in  §  35  must  be  ration- 
ally applied. 

§  40.    Fees 

1.  Fees  are  to  be  paid  immediately  after  admission  to  the  exam- 
ination to  the  treasurer  indicated  by  the  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission. 

If  a  candidate  proves  through  valid  certificates  that  he  has  been 
obliged  through  illness  or  other  exceptional  difficulties  to  abandon 
the  examination  which  he  has  begun,  the  fees  will  be  returned. 
In  all  other  cases  they  remain  in  the  official  treasury  whether 
the  examination  has  been  finished  or  not. 

2.  Exclusive  of  the  stamp  to  be  placed  on  the  certificate,  the 
fees  amount  to  60  marks  for  the  entire  examination,  30  marks 
for  the  second  examination  or  the  supplementary  examination, 
and  also  for  those  mentioned  in  §  39.     In  case  of  the  division  of 
the  examination  into  two  parts,  permitted  according  to  §  33,  i,  a 
special  fee  of  30  marks  has  to  be  paid  in  addition  to  the  fees  of 
60  marks  for  the  entire  examination. 

§  41.  When  do  these  Examination  Regulations  become  Effective? 
The  present  examination  regulations  for  instruction  in  higher 
schools  and  the  decrees  issued  to  supplement  or  to  change  these 
regulations  become  effective  on  April  i,  1899,  after  nullification 
of  the  regulations  of  February  5,  1887,  for  instruction  in  higher 
schools. 

§  42.     Transitionary  Regulations 

The  applications  coming  in  before  April,  1899,  must  be  treated 
according  to  the  old  examination  regulations  unless  the  use  of 
the  new  regulation  is  particularly  requested. 


CERTIFICATION   OF    TEACHERS  6 1 

The  extension  of  a  certificate  granted  conditionally  according  to 
the  old  regulations  must  take  place  according  to  the  requirements  of 
the  old  regulations.  If  the  certificate  has  been  delivered  before 
April,  1899,  the  application  for  the  supplementary  examination 
must  be  made  before  April  i,  1901 ;  if  the  certificate  has  been  de- 
livered after  April  i,  1899,  the  time  for  the  application  is  limited 
to  two  years  from  the  day  of  the  delivery  of  the  certificate. 

The  extension  of  a  certificate  granted  unconditionally  according 
to  the  old  regulations  must  follow  the  new  regulations  after  April  i , 
1899.  If  the  certificate  has  been  delivered  before  April  i,  1899, 
the  application  for  an  extension  examination  can  be  made  up  to 
April  i,  1905  ;  if  it  has  been  delivered  after  April  i,  1899,  the 
time  for  application  is  extended  over  six  years  from  the  day  of 
the  delivery  of  the  certificate. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PRACTICAL  TRAINING  OF  CANDIDATES 
FOR  THE  POSITION  OF  TEACHER  IN  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  IN 
PRUSSIA,  FROM  MARCH  15,  1908 

§i 

In  order  to  obtain  certification  for  teaching  in  higher  schools, 
the  candidates  must  be  trained  practically  for  their  future  pro- 
fession after  having  passed  the  scientific  examination.  This 
training  is  carried  out  under  the  guidance  of  capable  educators  and 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Royal  Provincial  School  Board. 

§2 

The  practical  training  lasts  two  years  and  consists  of  the  Semi- 
narjahr  and  the  Probejahr  following. 

A.  During  the  Seminarjahr  the  candidates  must  acquaint 
themselves  with  the  theory  of  education  and  the  theory  of  teaching 
in  their  application  to  higher  schools,  and  with  the  methods  of 
instruction  in  individual  subjects ;  they  must  also  be  trained  for 
their  practical  work  as  teachers  and  educators. 


62      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

B.  The  Probejahr  is  organized  especially  for  the  independent 
demonstration  of  the  teaching  ability  attained  in  the  Seminar jahr ; 
it  should,  as  a  rule,  be  passed  in  those  schools  which  have  not 
been  used  for  the  work  of  the  Seminarjahr. 

A .     The  Seminarjahr 

§3 

Sometime  before  the  beginning  of  a  summer  or  a  winter  semes- 
ter candidates  must  apply  to  the  provincial  school  board  in  whose 
district  they  want  to  pass  the  Seminarjahr.  With  the  application 
for  admission  must  be  sent :  — 

1.  The  original  of  the  certificate  or  the  preliminary  certificate 
concerning  the  scientific  or  subject  examination  already  passed. 

2.  A  certificate  from  an  official  physician  attesting  that  the 
candidate  has  the  necessary  health  and  the  physical  qualifications 
for  the  profession  of  a  teacher;  especially  that  he  has  no  percep- 
tible tendencies  to  chronic  diseases  as  well  as  no  defects  of  speech, 
and  that  his  sight  and  hearing  are  sufficient. 

3.  A  statement  concerning  his  financial  condition  and   the 
availability  of  the  means  necessary  to  provide  for  his  support 
during  the  period  of  practical  training. 

4.  A  statement  concerning  his  military  status. 

The  minister  may  assign  the  candidate  to  another  district. 

§4 

The  assignment  of  candidates  is  made  twice  a  year,  at  Easter, 
and  in  the  autumn,  by  the  provincial  school  board,  to  seminars 
in  which  the  school  year  begins  at  these  times.  The  assignment 
is  primarily  determined  by  the  subjects  which  the  candidate  is 
prepared  to  teach. 

Not  more  than  six  candidates  may  be  assigned  yearly  to  any 
seminar  by  the  provincial  school  board.  In  their  distribution 
the  teaching  subjects  of  the  candidates  as  well  as  the  specialties 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  63 

of  the  different  seminars  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration; 
at  the  same  time  care  must  be  taken  that  several  representatives 
of  the  same  subjects  are  not  assigned  to  the  same  seminar. 

Candidates  whose  moral  integrity  is  seriously  doubted  are  to 
be  excluded  from  the  assignment ;  this  step,  however,  needs  the  ap- 
proval of  the  minister. 

A  candidate  is  not  permitted  to  change  from  one  institution  to 
another  within  the  Seminar jahr.  The  employment  of  candidates 
outside  the  place  in  which  the  seminar  is  located  needs  the  approval 
of  the  minister. 

§5 

The  director  and  the  teachers  named  by  the  provincial  school 
board  are  responsible  for  the  systematic  training  and  practice  of 
the  candidates  (§  2,  A)  according  to  the  following  regulations :  — 

a.  For  the  instruction  of  the  candidates  weekly  sessions  of  at 
least  two  hours  each  are  to  be  held  during  the  whole  year  (vaca- 
tion time  excepted)  under  leadership  of  the  director  or  one  of  the 
teachers  named;  to  these  sessions  the  other  teachers  are  to  be 
admitted  also.  In  these  meetings  the  academic  form  of  lectures  is 
to  be  omitted  as  far  as  possible ;  on  the  contrary,  emphasis  should 
be  laid  on  discussions  and  instruction  concerning  the  requirements 
of  practical  school  life.  The  following  subjects  in  particular  must 
be  treated :  — 

The  theory  of  education  and  teaching  in  higher  schools,  es- 
pecially methods  of  teaching  the  particular  subjects  for  which  the 
candidates  have  been  certificated.  A  historical  survey  of  the 
development  of  the  higher  school  systems  and  of  important  repre- 
sentatives of  pedagogy,  as  well  as  discussion  of  important  publica- 
tions in  the  field  of  education  and  instruction  at  the  present  time. 

Administration  and  organization  of  higher  schools,  official 
courses  of  study,  examination  regulations,  and  rules  concerning 
certificates  and  promotions. 

The  principles  of  school  discipline  as  far  as  possible  in  connec- 


64      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

tion  with  definite  events,  and  also  in  connection  with  conference 
records  concerning  these  events ;  school  regulations ;  relations 
between  school  and  home;  the  principles  of  school  hygiene  with 
special  reference  to  the  interior  equipment  of  schoolrooms  and 
to  school  administration. 

Supervisory  authorities,  the  assignment  of  duties  to  teachers 
and  class  masters,  the  form  of  official  reports  and  petitions. 

Assignments  .for  observation  of  lessons  as  well  as  preparation 
for  practice  teaching  (see  b)  and  for  the  correction  of  home 
work;  discussions  of  teaching  problems  in  their  personal  re- 
lations. 

According  to  the  requirements  of  the  chairman,  the  candidates 
must  deliver  short  reports,  as  previously  mentioned,  on  those 
subjects  lying  within  their  sphere;  they  must  also  give  lectures; 
special  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  training  of  the  candidate 
in  fluent  speaking. 

Minutes  of  these  seminar  meetings  must  be  kept  by  the  candi- 
dates, which,  after  verification  by  the  chairman,  must  be  signed  at 
the  next  meeting.  The  provincial  school  boards  should  take  care 
that  from  time  to  time  a  part  of  these  minutes,  as  well  as  of  the 
topics  given  to  the  candidates  for  their  reports  and  their  work 
(§  5t  d),  are  exchanged  between  the  seminars  for  the  mutual  stimu- 
lation of  teachers  and  directors. 

b.  In  close  connection  with  this  instruction  the  candidates  are 
systematically  occupied  with  practical  exercises  in  teaching.  These 
consist  in  observation  lessons  and  in  their  own  practice  teaching. 
The  instructions  of  the  director  are  authoritative  for  these  obser- 
vation lessons,  which  must  be  arranged  according  to  certain  points 
of  view. 

In  these  observations  the  candidates  should  gain  a  general  view 
of  the  problems  of  the  school ;  they  should  also  become  acquainted 
with  the  technique  of  teaching  special  subjects  in  the  different 
classes,  and  they  should  get  through  observation  an  idea  of  the 
viewpoints  and  peculiarities  of  the  classes  in  which  they  themselves 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  6$ 

are  to  teach  later.  With  all  candidates  importance  should  be  at- 
tached to  the  observation  of  German  lessons. 

The  teachers  whose  classes  are  to  be  observed  by  the  candidates 
must  be  informed  in  advance  ;  they  are  obliged  to  explain  to  the 
candidates  the  standing  of  the  class,  the  general  aim  of  instruction, 
and  the  special  teaching  problems  as  well  as  the  best  way  to  solve 
them,  and  thus  contribute  their  share  to  the  practical  training  of 
the  candidates. 

Practice  teaching  begins  as  soon  as  the  candidate  feels  some- 
what at  home  in  the  institution,  and  it  takes  place  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  director  with  the  cooperation  of  the  regular  teachers 
of  the  subjects  concerned.  In  these  lessons,  however,  the  teaching 
topics  which  at  first  are  limited  in  time  and  importance,  have  to 
be  gradually  extended  according  to  the  ability  of  the  candidates, 
so  that  they  may  have  the  opportunity  to  test  their  own  power 
and  to  be  trained  in  independent  instruction.  For  these  lessons 
the  candidates  must  outline  the  subject  matter,  and,  as  long  as  the 
supervising  teacher  thinks  it  necessary,  they  must  prepare  a  lesson 
plan.  It  is  recommended  that  even  those  candidates  who  did  not 
qualify  for  instruction  in  German  should  have  some  practice  in 
German  instruction. 

About  once  a  month  the  candidates  must  teach  lessons  at 
which,  as  a  rule,  in  addition  to  the  director,  the  regular  teacher  of 
that  subject  and  the  other  candidates  must  be  present.  These 
lessons  are  to  be  discussed  in  the  general  meetings  with  reference 
to  their  plan  and  development  (see  under  a);  in  this  discussion 
attention  must  be  drawn  to  mistakes  which  the  candidates  have 
made  in  their  preparation,  in  the  pedagogical  treatment  of  the 
pupils,  and  in  their  own  attitude  before  the  class.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  candidates  get  acquainted  with  the  means  of 
instruction  and  their  use;  for  this  purpose  they  should  be 
assigned  particular  duties  in  the  organization  and  utilization  of 
collections,  especially  those  which  are  used  in  the  teaching  of 
natural  history  and  geography. 


66      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

The  candidates  must  also  take  part  in  the  direction  of  play 
hours  and,  when  necessary,  also  of  work  hours,  as  well  as  in  the 
physical  exercises  of  the  pupils  and  in  school  excursions. 

As  far  as  the  local  school  conditions  permit,  candidates  some- 
times should  be  given  opportunity  to  attend  lessons  hi  the 
seminars  of  elementary  teachers  and  in  different  kinds  of  ele- 
mentary schools. 

The  teachers  in  charge  of  the  candidates  are  obliged  to  report 
their  special  observations  from  tune  to  time  to  the  director  and  to 
seek  his  advice. 

c.  All  candidates  must,  as  a  rule,  be  invited  to  examinations 
and  teachers'  conferences.     Upon  request  they  must  answer  in- 
quiries about  pupils  as  far  as  those  taught  by  them  personally  are 
concerned.     At  these  conferences  the  candidates  should  also  be 
given  practice  in  writing  minutes. 

d.  The  candidates  are  recommended  to  keep  a  short  diary  con- 
cerning their  occupation  during  the  Seminarjahr,  especially  con- 
cerning the  lessons  which  they  themselves  have  given  and  have 
observed.    About  two  months  before  the  end  of  the  Seminarjahr 
every  candidate  must  hand  in  a  thesis  assigned  to  him   by   the 
director.    These  theses,  in  the  choice  of  which  the  reasonable 
wishes  of  the  candidates  should  be  considered,  are  as  a  rule  so 
constructed  that  they  include  theoretical  considerations  and  prac- 
tical applications.    They  should  not  involve  the  treatment  of  an 
elaborate  literary  subject,  but  they  should  give  the  candidate  the 
opportunity  to  work  out  a  literary  subject  within  his  sphere  and 
to  connect  it  with  his  own  observations  and  experiences.    Even 
if  the  candidate  has  had  a  very  extensive  teaching  experience, 
exemption  from  this  final  thesis  is  not  granted. 

§6 

The  director  and  the  teachers  assigned  to  the  training  of  the 
candidates  must,  if  necessary,  be  partly  relieved  from  their  own 
teaching. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  67 

§7 

At  least  three  weeks  before  the  end  of  the  Seminarjahr  the 
director  must  present  to  the  provincial  school  board  a  detailed 
characterization  of  every  individual  on  the  basis  of  personal  ob- 
servations made  during  their  training  (for  every  candidate  on  a 
special  blank).  In  this  characterization  are  to  be  treated:  the 
conduct  and  activity  of  the  candidate  during  the  Seminarjahr,  the 
ambition  shown  by  him,  his  capacity  for  scientific  work,  his  ability 
to  teach  and  the  stage  reached  by  him  in  his  practical  training,  as 
well  as  his  state  of  health,  his  financial  position,  his  social  attitude, 
and  his  behavior  towards  his  colleagues,  so  that  the  supervising 
authorities  may  be  acquainted  with  special  capacities  as  well  as  with 
striking  shortcomings  in  the  candidate's  conduct,  ambitions,  and 
attainments.  The  theses  (§  5,  d),  with  the  criticism  of  the  director 
or  the  teacher  in  charge  and  the  application  for  admission  to  the 
Probejahr,  must  accompany  the  characterization.  In  the  appli- 
cation for  admission  the  candidates  may  express  desires  in  regard 
to  the  place  of  the  Probejahr,  which  is  generally  spent  in  the  same 
province  as  the  Seminarjahr;  the  provincial  school  board  will 
consider  these  desires  if  they  facilitate  the  support  or  the  further 
education  of  the  candidate.  If,  however,  the  provincial  school 
board  thinks  it  advisable  to  order  a  provisional  employment  of  the 
candidate,  such  desires  must  be  disregarded. 

Four  weeks  after  the  end  of  the  Seminarjahr  the  director  must 
report  to  the  provincial  school  board  concerning  the  work  of  the 
year.  In  the  first  year  of  the  existence  of  a  seminar  the  report 
must  contain  a  very  exact  description  of  the  arrangements  made ; 
but  later  it  is  to  be  limited  to  shorter  statements  of  any  altera- 
tions in  methods  and  to  extraordinary  events.  A  copy  of  the 
characterizations  of  the  candidates,  which  have  been  mentioned 
above,  is  to  be  added  also. 

In  the  case  of  candidates  whose  admission  to  the  Probejahr 
is  questionable  on  account  of  defects  in  or  outside  the  school,  the 


68      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

provincial  school  board  must  require  a  prolongation  of  their  semi- 
nar time  for  a  year  or  half  a  year  at  another  seminar. 

Candidates  who,  according  to  the  unanimous  judgment  of  the 
provincial  school  board,  appear  unfit  for  the  teaching  profession 
must  be  told  that  they  cannot  be  admitted  to  the  Probejahr. 

B.    The  Probejahr 


On  the  basis  of  the  applications  for  admission  which  are  ac- 
ceptable according  to  the  regulations  under  §  7,  the  provincial 
school  board  assigns  the  candidates  at  the  beginning  of  a  summer 
semester  or  a  winter  semester  for  a  continuation  of  training  to 
one  of  the  institutions  named  in  §  2,  B;  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
not  more  than  three  candidates  may  at  the  same  time  be  employed 
at  a  school  with  a  nine  years'  course,  and  not  more  than  two  candi- 
dates at  a  school  with  a  shorter  time  for  instruction.  When  this 
assignment  is  made,  the  result  of  the  Seminarjahr  has  to  be  reported 
to  the  directors  (see  §  7). 

Permission  to  change  the  institution  during  the  Probejahr  can 
be  given  only  under  exceptional  conditions. 

In  the  case  of  candidates  who,  after  the  beginning  of  the  Probe- 
jahr, go  to  foreign  countries,  either  to  continue  their  own  educa- 
tion for  the  school  service  (for  instance,  as  exchange  teacher 
or  with  a  traveling  scholarship)  or  to  teach  in  German  schools, 
the  provincial  school  board  to  whose  districts  the  candidates  be- 
longed up  to  that  time  may  count  the  time  spent  there  as  part 
of  the  Probejahr  if  the  candidates  can  present  sufficient  proof  that 
they  have  in  all  respects  merited  such  a  privilege. 

§9 

According  to  their  teaching  qualification  the  candidates  are  at 
once  to  be  intrusted  with  larger  connected  teaching  problems, 
and  to  be  given  from  eight  to  ten  hours  per  week  of  actual  teach- 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  69 

ing.  In  the  case  of  a  candidate  who  is  employed  a  greater  number 
of  hours,  compensation  must  be  given  to  him  according  to  §  12. 

This  work  is  done  under  the  leadership  of  the  director  of  the 
institution  and  of  those  teachers  in  whose  classes  the  candidates 
teach  or  whose  lessons  they  have  taken  over. 

The  entire  employment  of  the  candidates  is  determined  by  the 
director,  who  must  see  to  it  that  opportunity  is  given  them  to  in- 
struct in  several  subjects  and  in  more  than  one  grade.  Candi- 
dates, whose  certificate  includes  the  natural  sciences  and  geography, 
are  for  some  time  to  be  assigned  to  a  qualified  teacher  in  order 
to  get  practice  in  the  use  of  means  of  instruction  and  the  ordinary 
apparatus,  as  well  as  in  the  management  and  maintenance  of  col- 
lections. For  the  candidate's  own  benefit  it  is  permitted  and  even 
advisable  to  intrust  the  teaching  of  German  for  a  short  time  to 
those  candidates  who  did  not  qualify  for  German. 

§  10 

The  director  and  the  teachers  of  the  institution  whose  lessons 
the  candidate  occasionally  takes  over  should  always  keep  in 
mind  that  the  object  of  the  assignment  is  exclusively  the  promotion 
of  the  candidate's  practical  education. 

Immediately  after  the  candidate's  entrance,  the  directors 
should  accurately  point  out  to  him  his  duties,  acquaint  him  with 
the  regulations  of  the  school,  and  in  the  light  of  the  communica- 
tions of  the  provincial  school  board  concerning  the  result  of  the 
Seminar jahr,  help  and  advise  him  (§7).  The  directors  must  watch 
the  conduct  and  the  activity  of  the  candidate,  visit  him  from  time 
to  time  in  his  lessons  and  draw  his  attention  to  accidental  mistakes, 
and,  if  necessary,  warn  him  seriously  by  indicating  the  conse- 
quences of  disregarding  this  advice  (§§  15,  16). 

The  teachers  in  charge  of  the  training  of  the  candidates  are 
obliged  to  attend  the  candidates'  lessons  very  often  in  the  begin- 
ning, later,  at  least  twice  a  month ;  to  examine  the  papers  which 


70      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

they  have  corrected;  and  to  advise  them  concerning  matters 
outside  of  instruction. 

The  respective  teachers  must  report  to  the  director  their  ob- 
servations concerning  the  work  and  the  ambition  of  the  candidates 
assigned  to  them,  and  must  consult  him  concerning  further  re- 
quirements. 

§n 

The  candidates  must  be  present  at  class  exercises  especially 
designated  by  the  director;  they  are  also  obliged  to  be  present 
at  examinations  and  teachers'  conferences,  according  to  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  director,  and  to  help  in  making  out  certificates 
for  the  pupils  instructed  by  them. 

§  12 

A  candidate  who  has  not  yet  finished  his  Probejahr  may,  hi 
exceptional  cases,  be  employed  by  the  provincial  school  board  as 
a  scientific  assistant,  either  as  a  substitute  for  a  regular  teacher 
or  for  an  officially  appointed  teacher ;  in  case  of  an  increased  need 
of  instruction,  the  additional  work  may  be  assigned  to  him  rather 
than  to  a  new  teacher. 

In  this  case  the  candidate  receives  remuneration;  he  also  re- 
ceives the  right  to  vote  in  teachers'  conferences  on  all  questions 
which  concern  the  class  conducted  by  him  or  the  pupils  instructed 
by  him. 

§13 

As  evidence  of  the  degree  of  pedagogical  insight  reached  the 
candidates  must,  towards  the  end  of  the  Probejahr,  present  to  the 
director  a  report  concerning  their  work.  (Compare  the  remark 
about  the  keeping  of  a  diary,  §  5,  d.) 

§  14 

At  least  three  weeks  before  the  close  of  the  Probejahr  the  director 
reports  on  its  result  to  the  provincial  school  board  hi  a  way  similar 
to  that  provided  in  §  7,  i.  The  work  mentioned  hi  §  13  and  a 
short  criticism  of  it  must  be  presented  with  this  report. 


CERTIFICATION   OF   TEACHERS  71 

§15 

The  provincial  school  board  soon  states,  on  the  basis  of  the 
reports  of  the  directors  concerning  the  Seminarjahr  and  the 
Probejahr  and  on  the  basis  of  the  observations  of  the  district  ad- 
visers, its  opinion  of  the  candidate's  work  and  the  result  of  the 
entire  two  years'  practical  training,  and  decides  whether  the 
candidate  can  fill  an  appointment  or  not. 

If  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  candidate  is  worthy  of  appointment, 
the  provincial  school  board  must  order  a  prolongation  of  the 
Probejahr  at  first  for  half  a  year  and  must  defer  recognition  of  his 
teaching  ability.  A  certificate  concerning  the  teaching  ability 
of  a  candidate  can  by  no  means  be  given  if  in  the  meantime  it  has 
been  proved  that  the  candidate,  either  through  physical  defects 
or  through  unavoidable  pedagogical  defects,  is  unable  to  f ulfill  his 
duties  as  a  teacher  or  educator  of  youth,  or  if  the  candidate  on 
account  of  his  conduct  within  or  without  the  school  appears  unfit 
for  the  teaching  profession.  This  decision  must  be  communicated 
in  writing  to  the  candidate  with  the  reasons  for  it. 

§16 

The  certification  must  take  place  so  early  that  the  oath  of 
the  candidates,  as  far  as  they  desire  to  enter  the  higher  public 
school  service,  can  be  taken  before  the  first  of  April  or  the  first  of 
October.  A  certificate  concerning  his  practical  training  must 
be  delivered  to  the  candidate  who  has  been  considered  capable 
of  teaching. 

§  17 

Special  regulations  apply  to  the  reports  concerning  the  com- 
pleted practical  education  of  the  candidates,  which  are  to  be 
made  at  Easter  or  hi  the  autumn  by  the  provincial  school  board. 

§18 

The  minister  reserves  to  himself  the  right  of  exemption  from 
the  two  years'  practical  education  hi  individual  cases;  for  instance, 
in  the  appointment  of  clergymen  to  the  higher  school  service. 


72      TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Lines  of  Development.  —  An  examination  of  the  con- 
ditions for  the  certification  of  teachers  in  the  higher 
schools  from  1810  to  the  present  time  shows  certain 
changes  which  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  — 

1 .  Additional  subjects  have  been  introduced  from  time 
to    time,  —  philosophy,    history,    theology,    pedagogy, 
geography,  physics,  botany,  zoology,  English,  chemistry, 
mineralogy,  and  applied  mathematics. 

2.  Increase  in  the  number  of  subjects  upon  which  the 
candidate  may  pass  examination  is  accompanied  by  a 
decrease  in  the  number  upon  which  he  must  be  examined. 
At  first  all  the  subjects  were  included  in  the  examina- 
tion ;  after  1866  oral  examination  was  required  in  part 
of  the  subjects,  and  both  oral  and  written  examinations 
were  required  in  all  the  subjects  which  the  candidate 
desired  to  teach ;  since  1887  an  oral  examination  has  been 
required  in  philosophy,  pedagogy,  the  German  language 
and  literature,  and  religion,  and  both  oral  and  written 
examination  in  the  subjects  which  the  candidate  desires 
to  teach. 

3.  There  has  been  a  change  in  the  grouping  of  the  sub- 
jects hi  which  the  candidate  may  secure  the  teaching 
certificate.     In  1831  there  were  three  groups;  in  1866  four 
groups  were  established;  and  since  1898  there  have  been 
six  required  combinations  of  subjects. 

4.  The  written  work  has  increased  in  severity  and  defi- 
niteness.     Instead  of  covering  all  subjects,  as  at  first,  it  is 


CERTIFICATION    OF   TEACHERS  73 

now  limited  to  two  theses  to  be  prepared  within  a  period 
of  sixteen  weeks,  and  a  three-hour  examination  in  one 
of  the  principal  subjects.  One  of  the  theses  is  in  the 
sphere  of  the  four  subjects  included  in  the  general  exami- 
nation, the  other  in  one  of  the  principal  subjects. 

5.  The  special  examination  for  a  particular  position  has 
disappeared. 

6.  The  division  into  lower,  middle,  and  upper  classes  as 
a  basis  for  grading  certificates  has  been  displaced  by  the 
division  into  the  six  lower  and  the  three  upper  classes. 

7.  At  first  two  grades  of  certificates  were  issued,  then 
three,  then  two,  and  now  but  one.     Within  this  one  grade, 
however,  certain  qualitative  differences  are  recognized. 

8.  The  number  of  times  that  an  examination  may  be 
attempted  has  become  more  and  more  limited,  and  now 
only  a  second  trial  is  permitted. 

9.  For  many  years  no  written  examination  was   re- 
quired  of  men  who   had   taken   a   university    degree. 
At  present  the  only  special  favor  granted  them  is  that 
they  may  submit  the  doctor's  dissertation  in  place  of  one 
of  the  theses,  provided  it  covers  the  proper  field. 

10.  Before  1898  an  applicant  who  showed  evidence  of 
incompetence  might  be  advised  by  the  commission  not  to 
attempt  the  examination,  but  the  privilege  could  not  be 
denied  him  ;  since  that  date  the  president  of  the  examin- 
ing commission  is  required  to  deny  him  admittance. 

11.  The  test  lesson,  required  at  first,  fell  into  disuse, 


74      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

but  the  need  of  practical  training  was  greatly  emphasized 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Seminar jalir  in  1890. 

12.  The  influence  of  the  schoolmen  both  in  the  train- 
ing of  candidates  and  in  their  examination  has  increased, 
as  is  indicated  by  their  prominent  position  on  the  examin- 
ing commission,  and  by  the  provisions  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  gymnasial  seminars. 

13.  All  the  changes  show  a  tendency  to  make  the  con- 
ditions for  certification  more  severe,  more  explicit,  more 
pedagogical  in  their  nature,  and,  on  the  whole,  more  con- 
ducive to  the  thorough  professional  training  of  candidates. 
To  an  ever  increasing  degree,  they  emphasize  the  pro- 
fessional nature  of  the  calling. 


CHAPTER   III 
INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

IN  the  previous  chapter  the  development  of  the  legal 
qualifications  for  the  teacher's  office  during  the  last 
century  has  been  briefly  traced,  and  the  present  require- 
ments have  been  given  in  detail.  The  next  step  is  natu- 
rally a  consideration  of  the  institutions  in  which  teachers 
receive  their  training.  These,  too,  have  a  history,  and  it 
is  worth  while  to  see  how  they  came  to  be  what  they  now 
are.  Besides  the  university  as  a  whole,  there  are  two 
kinds  of  special  institutions,  the  university  seminar  and 
the  gymnasial  seminar.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  give 
a  complete  history  of  these  seminars,  but  only  to  present 
that  which  is  typical  in  the  development  of  each,  together 
with  a  concrete  and  somewhat  detailed  account  of  what 
is  now  done  in  them. 

THE   UNIVERSITY 

A .  The  University  as  a  Whole  has  always  played  the 
most  important  part  in  the  training  of  teachers  for  Ger- 
man higher  schools.  Before  the  state  assumed  responsi- 
bility for  the  training  of  its  citizens,  education  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  church  and  private  individuals.  The 

75 


76      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

priesthood  and  the  ministry  were  always  trained  at  the 
universities,  and  the  priests  and  ministers  controlled 
education  either  through  the  church  or  through  private 
efforts.  Churchmen  were  teachers  before  they  became 
churchmen,  and  often  afterwards  also.  A  degree  from 
a  university  was,  throughout  the  eighteenth  century, 
an  easy  passport  to  the  teacher's  position.  For  some 
years  after  the  state  began  to  exercise  control  over  the 
schools,  a  university  degree  was  so  highly  esteemed  that 
its  possessor  was  excused  from  a  written  examination. 
During  most  of  the  nineteenth  century  three  years' 
attendance  upon  a  university  was  an  absolute  necessity 
for  all  who  would  become  teachers  hi  the  higher  schools. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  university  as  a  whole  has 
exercised  more  influence  upon  the  training  of  teachers  for 
these  schools  than  have  all  other  institutions  organized 
for  special  pedagogical  purposes,  either  within  it  or  out- 
side of  it. 

B.  The  Theological-philological-pedagogical  Seminar. 
—  Within  the  university  the  first  institution  organized 
for  the  particular  purpose  of  training  teachers  for  the 
higher  schools  was  what  may  be  called  the  theological- 
philological-pedagogical  seminar.  As  the  name  implies, 
it  was  inspired  by  two  or  three  interests  which  usually 
worked  in  harmony,  although  sometimes  one  interest  and 
sometimes  another  dominated.  In  a  few  cases,  notably 
that  of  the  seminar  connected  with  the  university  at 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS      77 

Halle  under  the  leadership  of  Wolf,  one  interest  was  not 
only  dominant,  but  it  was  actually  antagonistic  to  the 
others. 

From  a  retrospective  point  of  view  it  seems  wholly 
natural  that  the  first  interest  in  the  special  training  of 
teachers  should  appear  among  theologians  and  philolo- 
gians.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the 
former  were  leaders  of  the  people  intellectually  as  well  as 
spiritually,  and  doubtless  they  realized  much  more  clearly 
than  any  one  else  the  problems  of  instruction  and  training 
and  the  importance  of  preparation  for  the  work  of  teach- 
ing, whether  in  the  church  or  in  the  school.  Their  task 
was  the  development  of  character  through  an  appeal  to 
feeling  and  impulse  as  well  as  to  intellect.  The  philolo- 
gians,  on  the  other  hand,  were  the  most  scholarly  people 
of  the  time  and  had  the  clearest  appreciation  of  the  prob- 
lems of  scholarship.  Their  interests  were  mainly  intel- 
lectual, and  they  stood  for  the  best  in  intellectual  effort 
and  attainment  in  the  schools.  Not  infrequently  the 
interests  of  both  theologian  and  philologian  were  com- 
bined in  one  person.  The  churchman  had  to  be  a 
student  of  the  languages,  and,  in  most  cases,  the  linguist 
had  official  connection  with  the  church.  At  all  events 
philology  and  theology  combined  to  form  the  first  insti- 
tution within  the  university  in  which  the  training  of 
teachers  for  their  work  was  recognized  as  an  important 
object. 


78      TRAINING   OF  TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Gottingen.  —  The  first  seminar  of  this  kind  was  founded 
at  Gottingen  in  1737.  Concerning  it,  Fries  writes  as 
follows :  — 

"The  oldest  example  of  a  university  seminar  is  the  institution 
founded  by  J.  M.  Gesner.  As  a  student  at  Jena  he  had  received 
the  first  suggestion  of  it  from  his  teacher,  Buddeus,  who  desired 
to  equip  the  students  of  theology  with  pedagogical  knowledge 
for  their  future  calling  as  teachers  and  wished  to  found  a  peda- 
gogical seminar  for  this  purpose.  As  a  guide  for  it,  Gesner  wrote, 
hi  1715,  his  '  Institutiones  rei  Scholasticae/  a  kind  of  compendium 
which  was  based,  not  upon  his  own  experience,  but  upon  a  study 
of  Ratke,  Comenius,  and  Locke.  The  work  showed  his  own  good 
judgment,  however,  and  served  as  an  outline  of  his  intended  lec- 
tures. In  it  he  treated  didactics  especially,  but  he  also  gave  rules 
for  education.  His  later  views,  ripened  through  long  experience, 
can  be  found  in  the  prefaces  of  different  books,  especially  hi  the 
'Primae  lineae  isagoges  in  eruditionem  universalem.' 

"The  plan  was  not  carried  out  at  Jena,  but  after  Gesner  had 
gathered  rich  experience  in  Weimar,  Ansbach,  and  Leipsic,  the 
opportunity  was  finally  given  hi  Gottingen  for  the  realization  of 
his  ideas.  As  inspector  of  the  Gymnasien  in  the  Braunschweig- 
Liineburg  districts,  he  remained  in  particularly  close  touch  with 
the  practice  of  the  schools.  Opportunity  was  also  given  hi  the 
philological  seminar  in  Gottingen  to  train  theologians  for  the 
work  of  teaching.  Three  kinds  of  instruction  were  undertaken: 
first,  scientific,  hi  philology,  mathematics,  natural  science,  history, 
and  geography;  second,  pedagogical,  in  which  the  institutiones 
previously  mentioned  was  used  as  a  foundation ;  third,  practical, 
by  means  of  practice  teaching  hi  the  city  school.  Under  Gesner 
and  also  under  his  successor,  Heyne,  this  seminar  trained  a  great 
number  of  capable  schoolmen  for  the  country.  Fr.  A.  Wolf  visited 
it  several  times,  but  had  no  official  connection  with  it.  Charac- 
teristic of  the  institution  was  the  union  of  instruction  in  subject 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      79 

matter  with  pedagogical  instruction.  This  union  was  certainly 
influenced  by  the  university  customs  of  the  time,  since  the  sub- 
jects which  belonged  properly  to  the  schools  received  insufficient 
consideration  in  the  lectures.  It  was  typical,  however,  of  this 
whole  class  of  seminars."  1 

Halle.  —  The  seminar  at  Halle  had  a  checkered  history 
and  presents  several  interesting  phases  of  development. 
In  1765  J.  S.  Semler,  one  of  the  Halle  rationalists,  sought 
to  give  the  members  of  his  theological  seminar  some 
preparation  for  the  work  of  teaching.  The  instruction 
consisted  mainly  in  philological  lectures  and  exercises  hi 
the  classics.  The  Minister  of  State,  von  Zedlitz,  became 
interested  in  the  idea  and  in  1777  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  special  pedagogical  division  of  the  theological 
seminar,  in  which  teachers  for  the  Volksschule  might  be 
trained  and  to  which  a  practice  school  should  be  attached. 
The  whole  institution  was  under  Semler's  supervision, 
but  the  work  was  done  by  Schutz  who  gave  pedagogical 
lectures  besides  managing  the  institution  directly.  When 
the  latter  was  called  to  Jena  two  years  later,  the  Minister 
sought  a  successor  who  was  in  sympathy  with  the  Philan- 
thropinistic  movement ;  but  Trapp,  the  man  chosen,  was 
not  successful  either  in  his  lectures  or  in  the  management 
of  the  practice  school,  and  soon  left  the  position.  For- 
tunately, the  interest  of  Minister  von  Zedlitz  continued, 
and  Fr.  A.  Wolf  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  work  with 
the  title  of  professor  of  philology  and  pedagogy.  As 

1  Fries,  W.,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fur  das  Lehramt,  22. 


8o      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

professor  of  pedagogy  he  was  placed  under  obligations  to 
act  as  leader  of  the  practice  school,  to  give  instruction  in 
it,  and  to  give  pedagogical  lectures.  He  had  little  faith, 
however,  in  the  distinctly  pedagogical  side  of  the  work,  and 
he  not  only  permitted  the  practice  school  to  die,  but  caused 
a  professorship  in  oratory  to  be  substituted  for  the  one 
in  pedagogy.  In  1787  he  established  a  philological 
seminar  in  place  of  the  pedagogical  seminar,  and  then, 
with  rare  zeal  and  ability,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  train- 
ing of  philologists,  many  of  whom  caught  his  spirit  and 
later  became  excellent  teachers.  Wolf's  contention  was 
that  the  work  of  the  schools  could  never  be  highly  success- 
ful so  long  as  it  was  conducted  by  men  whose  main  interest 
lay  in  theology  and  the  church.  In  the  new  emphasis 
which  he  placed  upon  thorough  knowledge  of  subject 
matter  and  the  choice  of  teaching  as  a  life  work,  he  per- 
formed a  great  service.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in 
later  years  he  had  a  higher  appreciation  of  both  the  need 
and  the  value  of  pedagogical  training. 

In  1804  the  theological  seminar  was  again  divided  into  a 
theological  and  a  pedagogical  section.  The  latter  was 
to  prepare  teachers  for  the  Gymnasium  and  for  the  middle 
and  lower  Burgerschulen.  In  1829  this  was,  by  ministe- 
rial order,  made  into  an  independent  institution ;  but  it 
was  provided  that  the  director  must  be  both  a  professor 
in  the  university  theological  or  philosophical  faculty  and 
also  a  practical  schoolman.  The  director,  Niemeyer, 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      8 1 

wished  to  join  it  with  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  whose 
schools  afforded  abundant  opportunity  for  observation 
and  practice,  but  the  university  authorities  did  not  ap- 
prove the  plan.  The  institution  soon  lost  its  independ- 
ence, and  in  1835  it  was  made  permanently  a  part  of  the 
theological  seminar.  In  1853  it  came  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  professor  of  theology,  Kramer,  who  was  also 
Director  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen.  Lectures  were 
now  given  on  pedagogy,  didactics,  and  the  history  of 
education  and  of  systems  of  instruction.  To  this 
theoretical  instruction  were  added  practical  exercises 
of  three  kinds :  first,  members  of  the  seminar  were  re- 
quired to  instruct  pupils  called  from  the  schools  for  the 
purpose,  the  teaching  being  observed  and  afterwards 
criticized  by  their  colleagues  and  the  director;  second, 
they  were  required  to  visit  the  classes  of  superior  teachers 
in  the  schools;  third,  they  were  sometimes  required 
to  give  independent  instruction  in  the  schools.  This 
management  continued  successfully  until  1881,  when 
the  directorship  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  new  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  Dr.  Herbst.  In  1882  the  ministerial 
order  that  candidates  must  have  passed  their  state  exami- 
nation before  entering  upon  their  practice  year,  antago- 
nized the  prosperity  of  the  seminar ;  and,  upon  the  death 
of  Herbst,  in  1884,  it  was  removed  from  the  university  to 
Magdeburg  and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  provincial 
school  board. 


82      TRAINING    OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

The  seminars  just  described  may  be  taken  as  typical 
of  the  spirit  and  attainments  of  all  the  institutions  of  this 
class.  Other  seminars  —  linguistic,  historical,  mathe- 
matical, and  scientific  —  were  organized  in  connection 
with  the  universities,  the  main  purpose  of  which  was  the 
development  of  academic  scholarship  without  particular 
reference  to  pedagogical  questions,  and  these  seminars 
have  become  a  well-established  feature  of  university  life 
everywhere. 

C.  The  Pedagogical  Seminar.  —  In  the  theological-phil- 
ological-pedagogical seminar  the  main  interest  lay  in  the 
mastery  of  subject  matter,  and  more  emphasis  was  placed 
upon  this  than  upon  distinctively  pedagogical  questions. 
A  little  later  the  interest  in  purely  pedagogical  ques- 
tions became  greater,  and  seminars  were  established 
in  which  pedagogical  problems  occupied  the  attention 
of  those  concerned,  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  subject 
matter  being  regarded  as  a  necessary  presupposition. 

Konigsberg. — The  efforts  of  Herbart  at  Konigsberg 
are  of  special  interest  because  of  the  Herbartian  influence 
upon  later  generations.  Herbart's  personality  was  of 
that  winning  type  which  enabled  him  to  secure  what  he 
wanted  for  carrying  out  his  project.  In  1810  the  Prussian 
authorities  gave  him  money  and  authority  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  his  pedagogical  seminar.  In  the  sketch  of 
his  plans  which  he  presented  to  William  von  Humboldt, 
Herbart  proposed  to  center  the  interest  of  many  teachers 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS      83 

and  students  upon  a  small  number  of  pupils  cared  for  in 
a  home  over  which  he  should  have  entire  control.  The 
number  of  pupils  was  limited  to  twenty,  and  it  never 
actually  exceeded  fifteen.  They  ranged  in  age  from  nine 
to  sixteen.  There  were  to  be  four  classes,  the  highest 
preparing  for  Secunda  or  Prima  in  the  Gymnasium. 
Herbart  himself,  as  director,  was  to  be  assisted  by  one 
supervisor,  who  had  taken  his  doctor's  degree,  and  by  one 
teacher,  who  might  be  a  university  student.  The  super- 
visor should  live  with  the  boys  in  the  home  and  be  at  all 
times  responsible  for  them.  The  teacher  should  care  for 
them  especially  during  holiday  periods  and  at  other  times 
in  the  absence  of  the  supervisor.  The  supervisor  should 
make  a  yearly  report  upon  his  observations  and  experi- 
ments. In  the  management  of  the  school  there  should  be 
no  attempt  to  follow  the  lines  laid  down  for  other  schools, 
as  one  main  purpose  was  the  development  of  pedagogical 
science  through  experiment.  The  philosophical  and 
pedagogical  lectures  and  the  practical  work  were  to 
stand  in  the  closest  possible  relation.  Members  of  the 
seminar  should  hear  the  lectures,  be  responsible  for  the 
pupils  at  specified  times,  teach  classes  under  direction 
and  criticism,  visit  one  another's  classes,  and  make  reports 
upon  observations  or  assigned  topics.  A  meeting  of  the 
seminar  should  be  held  once  a  week  for  the  reading  and 
discussion  of  reports.  As  actually  carried  out,  the  organi- 
zation was  somewhat  different.  At  first,  students  served 


84      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

under  Herbart's  direction  in  place  of  the  supervisor.  The 
home  for  the  boys  was  provided  only  when  he  took 
them  into  his  own  house.  Two  regular  teachers  were  at 
length  secured  who  worked  under  his  supervision.  The 
school  stood  entirely  apart  from  other  schools,  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  work  was  different.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  rather  unfavorable  conditions  under  which  the 
work  was  carried  on,  the  results  both  in  the  practice  school 
and  in  the  seminar  were  unusually  satisfactory.  The 
succcess  of  the  institution  seems  to  have  been  largely  de- 
pendent upon  Herbart's  personality,  however,  for,  at  his 
departure  from  Konigsberg  in  1833,  it  entirely  collapsed. 
Relatively  few  of  the  students  trained  here  under  Herbart 
became  teachers  in  the  higher  schools,  but  he  had  been  an 
inspiration  to  some  who  carried  on  the  work  elsewhere  in 
the  universities. 

Jena.  —  The  university  pedagogical  seminar  idea  has 
been  most  consistently  worked  out  at  Jena.  Brzoska,  who 
had  been  an  enthusiastic  student  and  assistant  of  Her- 
bart at  Konigsberg,  gave  psychological  and  pedagogical 
lectures  here  from  1832  to  1839,  and  he  also  announced 
practical  pedagogical  exercises.  The  latter,  however, 
seem  to  have  found  no  considerable  place.  His  successor 
Graefe,  director  of  the  Biirgerschule,  tried  the  same,  but 
with  no  great  success.  In  1843  Professor  S  toy  founded  a 
pedagogical  society  and  laid  a  firm  foundation  for  the 
later  substantial  development  of  pedagogical  work  hi  the 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      85 

university.  His  own  lectures  on  general  and  special  peda- 
gogy constituted  the  basis  of  all  his  work.  From  the  be- 
ginning Stoy  emphasized  the  necessity  of  practical  as 
well  as  theoretical  pedagogical  training  for  theologians, 
and  his  efforts  were  directed  towards  providing  for  their 
needs.  In  the  later  years  of  his  life,  he  estimated  that 
about  one  third  of  the  members  of  his  seminar  were  theo- 
logians. He  wished  to  provide  a  stipendium  for  them,  so 
that  they  could  study  with  him  a  half  year  after  they  had 
passed  their  examination,  but  the  plan  failed.  Towards 
the  close  of  his  career  fewer  theologians  attended  his 
seminar,  but,  to  his  great  satisfaction,  their  places  were 
taken  by  candidates  for  the  position  of  teacher  hi  the 
higher  schools  who  had  passed  the  state  examination 
(Staatsexamen)  or  taken  the  Doctor's  degree.  Many 
elementary  school  teachers  also  attended  his  seminar. 
In  1857  Stoy  established  a  regular  order  of  procedure 
with  reference  to  the  meetings  of  his  seminar.  These 
meetings  consisted  of  the  practicum,  a  trial  lesson  given  by 
a  candidate  before  all  the  members  of  the  seminar ;  the 
criticum,  in  which  the  work  of  the  practicum  was  discussed 
and  criticized  by  the  candidate  himself,  by  a  special  critic 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  and  by  the  members  generally ; 
the  scholasticum,  in  which  the  general  opportunities  and 
needs  of  the  practice  school  were  discussed  ;  and  the  peda- 
gogicum,  in  which  pedagogical  questions  of  all  kinds  were 
considered.  One  meeting  of  each  was  held  every  week. 


86      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

Stoy  early  established  a  school  for  observation  and  prac- 
tice, and  this  was  always  the  most  characteristic  and 
interesting  feature  of  his  work.  At  first  it  consisted  of  a 
few  boys  from  the  Burgerschule  who  came  voluntarily, 
but  the  second  year  he  took  over  the  management  of  a 
boys'  home,  and  this  gave  him  a  number  of  classes  for  the 
use  of  his  seminar.  Three  Volksschule  classes,  each  con- 
taining about  ten  boys,  were  assigned  to  the  use  of  the 
school ;  then  the  city  school  authorities  placed  two  classes 
of  girls  at  his  disposal,  and,  finally,  a  city  boys'  school 
was  placed  under  his  control.  The  candidates  entered 
heartily  into  the  work  of  practice  teaching,  and  the 
seminar  prospered.  Stoy  himself  taught  in  the  school 
under  the  observation  of  his  candidates;  he  superin- 
tended practice  teaching,  and  he  gave  lectures  on  psy- 
chology and  pedagogy,  which  applied  directly  to  the 
work  in  hand.  He  was  untiring  hi  his  efforts  and  was 
himself  the  life  of  the  seminar.  Organized  efforts  were 
made  to  promote  school  celebrations,  gymnastics,  church 
attendance,  Christmas  enjoyment,  school  journeys,  and 
field  work  with  a  harvest  celebration;  and  contributions 
were  secured  for  these  purposes. 

The  very  prosperity  of  the  undertaking  proved  its 
undoing.  On  the  ground  of  its  previous  success,  Stoy, 
in  1863,  asked  for  a  larger  and  surer  financial  equipment 
and  for  students'  time  to  the  amount  of  twelve  weekly 
hours  of  instruction.  He  proposed  to  admit  to  the  semi- 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR  THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      87 

nar,  first,  those  who  were  candidates  in  theology  or  for 
the  position  of  teacher  in  the  higher  schools ;  and,  second, 
students  of  theology  or  philosophy  who  had  spent  three 
semesters  in  study.  Members  of  the  first  class  were  to 
take  part  faithfully  in  all  assigned  tasks,  to  observe  the 
rules  of  the  school  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  and  to 
prepare  and  present  each  semester  a  report  or  discussion 
upon  some  topic  in  philosophical  or  historical  pedagogy. 
Members  of  the  second  class  were  regarded  as  associates 
and,  at  their  option,  were  freed  from  part  or  all  of  the 
practical  exercises.  These  propositions,  especially  that 
concerning  the  time  to  be  required  of  the  students,  met 
with  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  theological  faculty. 
The  decision  made  by  the  authorities  in  1865  provided 
that  students  should  not  be  obliged  to  spend  more  than 
four  hours  per  week  in  the  seminar  and  should  not  be 
permitted  to  enter  it  until  the  fifth  semester.  .As  Stoy 
could  not  endure  this  limitation,  he  resigned  his  position 
and  moved  to  Heidelberg,  where  he  remained  until  his 
recall  to  Jena  in  1874.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  in  passing 
that  his  efforts  to  organize  a  seminar  in  Heidelberg 
were  unsuccessful.  During  his  absence  from  Jena  the 
practice  school  was  returned  to  the  management  of  the 
city  authorities.  In  1876  it  was  again  turned  over  to  him, 
and  the  work  in  it  continued,  until  his  death  in  1885,  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  in  the  earlier  years.  In  the 
school  there  were  a  principal  teacher  and  three  class 


88      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

teachers  who  were  assisted  by  the  candidates.  The 
number  of  seminar  members  reached  forty.  Stoy  lec- 
tured on  psychology,  philosophical  pedagogy,  gymnasial 
pedagogy,  encyclopedia,  methodology  and  literature  of 
pedagogy,  Herbart's  life  and  system,  logic,  and  intro- 
duction to  philosophy.  Notwithstanding  his  great  age, 
he  worked  indefatigably  for  the  success  of  the  enterprise, 
and  it  prospered. 

Stoy's  able  successor,  Professor  William  Rein,  has  con- 
tinued, with  only  slight  changes,  the  work  begun  by  the 
former.  Instead  of  a  training  school  in  which  all  classes 
are  represented,  there  are  now  but  three  classes  from  the 
Volksschule,  some  seventy-five  pupils  in  all.  For  this 
school,  which  is  housed  in  a  plain  but  good  building, 
there  are  a  principal  and  three  class  teachers.  They  are 
assisted  by  candidates.  Stoy's  four  weekly  meetings  of 
the  seminar  have  been  reduced  to  three,  and  the  changes 
made  have  had  the  general  effect  of  lightening  the  work 
required  of  students. 

The  meetings  of  the  seminar  for  one  week,  as  observed 
by  the  writer,  were  as  follows :  The  practicum  was  held 
at  seven  o'clock  on  Tuesday  morning  in  the  large  room 
of  the  school  building.  Those  present  consisted  of  the  di- 
rector, the  principal  of  the  school,  the  candidate  in  charge 
of  the  class,  a  class  of  seventeen  boys  about  eleven  years 
old,  and  fifty  observers,  a  few  of  whom  were  visitors. 
The  candidate,  a  young  man  who  was  studying  for  the 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS      89 

degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  had  entire  charge  of  the 
class  and  did  good  work.  The  subject  was  geography,  and 
the  particular  topic,  the  Netherlands.  By  means  of  a 
series  of  statements  and  questions,  the  teacher  developed 
a  number  of  facts  concerning  these  countries,  constant 
reference  being  made  to  the  wall  map  and  to  the  pupils' 
atlases.  Before  the  close  of  the  hour  the  pupils  were 
required  to  restate  these  facts  systematically.  The  plan 
of  the  lesson  showed  intelligent  regard  for  pedagogical 
principles,  even  though  there  may  have  been  wanting  the 
skill  in  applying  them  that  comes  with  experience.  The 
written  outline  of  the  plan  prepared  by  the  teacher  was 
passed  around  to  the  members  of  the  seminar. 

The  second  meeting  of  the  week,  the  theoreticum,  was 
held  on  Wednesday  from  eleven  to  one  in  the  university 
auditorium.  The  topic  discussed  was  the  observations 
made  by  the  members  of  the  seminar  during  a  recent 
visit  to  schools  situated  some  miles  from  Jena.  The 
director  suggested  that  the  discussion  should  be  directed 
to  three  points:  adverse  criticism,  statement  of  what 
pleased,  and  suggestion  of  what  could  be  used  advanta- 
geously in  the  seminar  practice  school.  Only  the  first  two 
points  were  considered,  the  topic  being  continued  for 
further  discussion  at  the  next  meeting.  In  the  discussion, 
which  was  general,  there  was  appreciation  of  good  points 
in  the  teaching  observed,  as  well  as  unsparing,  penetrat- 
ing, adverse  criticism.  A  member  of  the  seminar  was 


90      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

appointed  to  send  to  the  directors  of  the  schools  visited  a 
statement  of  the  points  mentioned  in  adverse  and  favor- 
able criticism. 

The  third  meeting,  the  conference,  was  held  on  Thurs- 
day evening  from  half -past  eight  to  half -past  ten,  in  a 
room  of  the  historic  Burgkeller.  It  was  semi-social  in 
character,  at  least  an  opportunity  was  offered  for  social 
intercourse  before  and  after  the  session,  as  those  present 
sat  around  tables  and  partook  of  refreshments.  This  was 
the  largest  meeting  of  the  week.  Eighty  names  were 
called,  and  some  seventy-five  persons  were  present.  The 
membership  includes  men  and  women,  part  of  whom  are 
young,  others  somewhat  mature.  Among  the  latter 
was  a  considerable  number  of  school  officials  who  were 
seeking  better  training  for  their  work.  At  the  opening 
of  the  session  two  former  members  of  the  seminar, 
who  now  hold  important  positions,  were  introduced. 
After  the  reading  of  exhaustive  minutes  of  the  preceding 
meeting  and  the  announcement  of  the  program  for  the 
next  meeting,  the  seminar  proceeded  to  the  criticism 
of  two  practice  lessons,  one  of  which  has  been  described. 
The  order  of  procedure  was  self-criticism  by  thecandidate, 
criticism  (read)  by  the  referent  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
reply  by  the  candidate,  general  criticism  by  the  members 
of  the  seminar  (which  on  this  particular  occasion  was  not 
spirited),  pertinent  remarks  by  the  principal  of  the  prac- 
tice school,  and  closing  discussion  by  the  director.  To 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      9 1 

an  American  observer  it  was  a  noticeable  and  not  alto- 
gether agreeable  fact  that,  of  the  twenty  or  more  women 
present,  none  contributed  anything  to  the  discussion. 

In  addition  to  his  duties  as  director  of  the  seminar, 
Professor  Rein  gives  lectures  on  general  and  special  peda- 
gogy, psychology,  foreign  school  systems,  and  ethics. 
Jena  offers  excellent  opportunities  for  the  study  of  general 
pedagogy  and  the  general  principles  underlying  practical 
teaching.  The  work  is  not  highly  specialized,  indeed  the 
director  believes  that  as  much  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  training  of  lower  school  teachers  and  school  offi- 
cials as  to  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  higher  schools. 
Under  a  law  peculiar  to  Saxe- Weimar,  the  state  to  which 
the  University  of  Jena  belongs,  candidates  for  the  higher 
school  office  who  have  passed  their  state  examination, 
are  required  to  attend  the  university  lectures  on  pedagogy 
and  to  teach  at  least  two  hours  per  week  in  the  university 
practice  school  at  the  same  time  that  they  do  the  work  of 
the  Seminarjahr  and  Probejahr  in  the  city  Gymnasium 
under  the  direction  of  the  man  who  is  at  once  rector  of  the 
Gymnasium  and  director  of  the  gymnasial  seminar.  The 
higher-school  practice  teaching  is  done  in  the  Gymnasium, 
and  it  is  here  that  they  receive  the  most  direct  practical 
training  for  their  work. 

The  following  rules  formulated  for  the  government  of 
the  university  seminar  are  of  interest  as  indicating  in 
detail  the  spirit  and  method  of  its  work. 


92      TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  PEDAGOGICAL  SEMINAR  OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY  AND  ITS  PRACTICE  SCHOOL  AT 

JENA 

I.  GENERAL  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  SEMINAR  AT  LARGE 

I.    MEMBERS  AND  THEIR  DUTIES 

(a)  Membership 

§  i.  Any  student  or  auditor  at  the  University  may  become 
a  member  of  the  seminar  by  applying  personally  to  the  director. 
Admission  may  be  had  at  any  time.  Regular  members  are  to 
register  their  names  and  an  autobiographical  sketch  in  the  semi- 
nar book. 

(b)  Classes  of  Members 

§  2.  Besides  the  teachers  of  the  practice  school,  there  are 
regular  members  and  associate  members.  Regular  members  are 
those  who  give  instruction  in  the  practice  school.  All  members 
are  obliged  to  attend  the  weekly  conferences  of  the  seminar. 

(c)  Teachers 

§  3.  The  principal  and  the  two  class  teachers  direct  the  school 
work  under  supervision  of  the  director.  The  practice  school  has 
three  classes  and  three  teachers. 

§  4.  The  teachers  instruct  the  candidates  in  preparing  their 
lessons,  receive  the  lesson  plans,  and  present  the  latter  from  time 
to  time  to  the  director.  They  watch  over  the  lessons  of  the  candi- 
dates and  are  allowed  to  interfere  in  these  lessons.  Conversation 
with  the  candidates  during  the  lesson  is  not  permitted ;  only  short 
directions  and  hints  are  allowed.  Teachers  should  arrange  critical 
discussions  with  the  candidates,  if  possible,  immediately  after  the 
lessons.  Under  certain  circumstances  the  lessons  may  be  entirely 
left  to  the  candidates.  From  time  to  time  every  teacher  should 
have  conferences  with  his  candidates,  especially  concerning  the 
making  out  of  concentration  diagrams  for  the  coming  week  and 
concerning  uniform  measures  of  government  and  discipline. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      93 

(d)  Candidates 

§  5.  Before  taking  a  class  the  candidate  must  first  have  an 
understanding  with  the  regular  teacher  and  the  class  teacher  con- 
cerned. The  new  candidates  may  begin  to  instruct  only  after 
having  observed  many  lessons,  especially  those  of  the  subject 
which  they  have  chosen. 

§  6.  A  class  is  taken  for  a  whole  semester.  Every  lesson 
must  be  based  on  a  lesson  plan  which  must  have  the  form  of  me- 
thodical unity  as  far  as  the  subject  matter  permits  it.  The  subject 
matter  must  be  accurately  and  distinctly  organized,  and  the  single 
parts  must  be  emphasized  by  marking  them  on  the  margin. 
Questions  concerning  concentration  and  the  results  to  be  aimed  at 
should  be  stated  accurately.  In  details  the  instruction  may  be 
conducted  freely.  As  the  instruction  in  the  practice  school  is 
based  on  concentration,  every  candidate  must  try  to  make  himself 
familiar  with  the  lines  of  concentration  of  other  subjects.  For 
some  tune  he  should  also  attend  lessons  which  are  closely  re- 
lated to  those  subjects  which  he  teaches.  Moreover,  he  should 
acquaint  himself  with  the  illustrative  means  of  instruction  which 
the  school  museum  possesses,  particularly  with  photographs. 

§  7.  The  lesson  plans  must  always  be  delivered  to  the  class 
teachers  in  whose  class  the  lesson  is  to  take  place.  The  criticisms 
of  the  class  teacher  and  of  the  director  must  receive  due  consid- 
eration. The  candidate  must  also  adjust  himself  to  those  means 
of  discipline  which  are  used  in  the  practice  school. 

(e)  Members  in  General 

§  9.  The  professional  spirit  should  be  such  as  to  lead  mem- 
bers of  the  seminar  to  attend  the  school  celebrations,  May  festi- 
vals, and  excursions  of  the  practice  school. 

§  10.  A  special  book  has  been  provided  for  reports  of  the  cele- 
brations of  the  seminar  (birthdays  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Grand 


94      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Duke,  celebration  of  Christmas,  etc.).  A  member  is  responsible 
for  these  reports. 

§  ii.  The  observation  of  lessons  and  the  exchange  of  opinion 
concerning  them  and  concerning  reports  in  the  observation  book 
are  opportunities  for  cultivating  and  maintaining  a  competitive 
professional  spirit.  Mutual  general  observations  are  especially 
recommended.  The  associate  members  should  also  often  take 
the  opportunity  to  observe  and  to  use  the  observation  book. 
The  person  criticized  in  the  observation  book  may  write  a  reply, 
to  which  may  be  added  the  remarks  of  the  class  teacher  con- 
cerned. No  controversy  may  be  continued  after  the  following 
meeting. 

§  12.  In  connection  with  the  celebration  of  Christmas  for  the 
pupils  of  the  practice  school  there  exists  also  a  celebration  of 
Christmas  for  the  members  of  the  seminar  hi  remembrance  of  the 
day  of  the  founding  of  the  seminar  (December  9,  1843).  This 
celebration  should  give  former  members  of  the  seminar  oppor- 
tunity to  show  their  attachment  to  the  institution. 

§  13.  From  tune  to  time  the  seminar  publishes  books.  Com- 
munications, especially  concerning  the  literary  activity  of  former 
members  of  the  seminar,  are  very  much  wanted  for  publication 
in  these  books.  Up  to  the  present  time  thirteen  books  have  come 
out;  they  can  be  purchased  in  the  seminar,  from  the  regularly 
appointed  teacher,  for  one  mark,  a  mark  and  a  hah",  two  marks, 
and  three  marks. 

(/)  Withdrawal  from  the  Seminar 

§  14.  Withdrawal  from  the  seminar  as  well  as  admission  to  it 
is  permitted  only  on  personal  application  to  the  director.  Mem- 
bers who  leave  Jena  are  expected  to  keep  up  their  connection  with 
the  seminar,  especially  to  furnish  communications  for  the  seminar 
book. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR  THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      95 
2.    WEEKLY  CONFERENCES  OF  THE   SEMINAR 

(a)  Theoreticum 

§15.  In  the  theoreticum,  which  is  held  in  one  of  the  lecture- 
rooms  of  the  university,  ethical  and  psychological  problems, 
special  scientific  educational  problems,  and  questions  of  method 
are  discussed.  The  discussion  is  led  by  the  director.  Any  mem- 
ber of  the  seminar  may  take  part  in  the  discussion. 

(b)  Practicum 

§  1 6.  The  practicum  consists  of  a  trial  lesson,  in  the  presence  of 
the  director  and  all  members  of  the  seminar,  which  is  assigned 
to  candidates  and  sometimes  also  to  class  teachers.  There  is  at 
least  one  practicum  weekly. 

§  17.  The  practicum  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  an  examina- 
tion; on  the  contrary,  it  should  give  an  illustration  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  candidate  and  must  therefore  be  fitted  into  the  entire 
course  of  instruction.  The  lesson  plan  which  forms  the  basis  for 
the  lesson  should  be  open  to  inspection  by  all  members  of  the 
seminar  during  the  practicum.  In  this  lesson  plan  the  place  where 
the  lesson  begins  is  to  be  marked  accurately. 

§  1 8.  The  regular  teacher  assigns  every  practicum  to  a  chief 
critic  who  has  to  prepare  a  written  criticism  to  be  delivered  to 
the  class  teacher  a  day  or  two  before  the  meeting,  if  possible,  and 
afterwards  to  the  director.  This  criticism  will  then  be  read  and 
discussed  in  the  meeting.  A  special  form  exists  for  this  criticism. 

§  19.  The  criticism  is  preceded  by  a  self-criticism  in  which  the 
candidate  must  clearly  explain  his  own  opinion  of  the  mistakes 
which  he  made  in  the  trial  lesson,  without  having  consulted  the 
critic  or  the  class  teacher  concerned. 

§  20.  The  regular  teacher  assigns  the  writing  of  minutes  to 
another  candidate  who  must  make  a  list  of  the  questions  asked 
during  the  practicum.  This  statement  must  cover  the  following 
topics : — 


96      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

(a)  Were  the  questions  formulated  in  the  right  way  ? 

(b)  Were  they  distributed  equally  or  were  some  pupils  ques- 
tioned too  often,  others  overlooked? 

(c)  Were  the  necessary  summaries  given  according  to  the  para- 
graphs of  the  lesson  plan  ?    Was  there  sufficient  repetition  ?    The 
notes  of  the  candidate  who  takes  the  minutes  must  be  used  in 
the  criticism.      Criticism  and  self-criticism  must  be  registered  in 
special  books. 

(c)  The  Conference 

§21.  The  conference  takes  place  once  a  week  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  director  or,  in  exceptional  cases,  of  the  regular  teacher. 
The  material  for  discussion  is  furnished  by  school  affairs  in  general, 
and  particularly  by  the  weekly  practicum. 

The  meeting  is  conducted  according  to  the  following  program :  — 

1.  Appointment  of  another  candidate  to  take  minutes. 

2.  Old  minutes. 

3.  Attendance  list. 

4.  Supervision  of  recess  periods. 

5.  New  practicum. 

6.  Observation  book. 

7.  General  affairs. 

8.  Discussion  of  the  practicum. 
(a)  Reading  of  the  criticisms. 
(6)  Discussion. 

The  regular  teacher  announces  the  order  of  the  discussion.  At 
the  close  of  the  meeting  the  usual  contributions  which  cover  the 
expenses  of  school  journeys  are  collected  and  put  into  the  treasury. 
The  candidate  appointed  to  take  the  minutes  must  do  this  and 
deliver  the  sum  collected  to  the  regular  teacher  for  the  traveling 
fund. 

In  addition  to  this  main  conference  the  principal  teacher  holds 
meetings  in  which  disturbances  in  the  school  organization,  absences, 
punishments,  personal  records,  the  aims  of  the  week  (concentra- 


INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      97 

tion  curricula)  are  discussed.  The  candidates  must  take  part 
in  these  meetings. 

§  22.  The  minutes  are  taken  by  the  members  in  alphabetical 
order.  The  particulars  of  the  discussion  should  not  be  reproduced. 
The  disputed  points,  reasons  for  and  against,  and  the  results 
should  be  summed  up  clearly. 

§  23.  The  chief  part  of  the  meeting  is  devoted  to  the  discussion 
of  the  practicum.  The  latter  begins  with  the  reading  of  the  criti- 
cism of  the  candidate  upon  his  own  work.  This  criticism  should 
most  emphatically  lead  the  candidates  to  seek  first  in  themselves 
for  the  mistakes  which  have  been  made  and  to  avoid  the  use  of 
unnecessary  severity  to  excuse  mistakes  or  to  put  the  blame  for 
them  upon  the  pupils  or  some  one  else.  The  self-criticism  is  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  the  appointed  critic.  In  connection  with  the 
different  parts  of  the  latter,  the  discussion  occurs.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  seminar  are  required  to. prepare  themselves  thoroughly 
for  this  discussion. 

Naturally  a  purely  objective  discussion  of  the  points  in  question 
is  required.  Personal  attacks  and  references  should  be  avoided. 

n.    REGULATIONS  OF  THE  PRACTICE  SCHOOL 

I.    INSTRUCTION  CONCERNING  GOVERNMENT 

Introduction 

Government  includes  all  arrangements  which  the  school  needs 
to  create  and  maintain  order  as  the  first  requirement  for  every 
kind  of  teaching  or  educating  influence.  Its  purpose  is  to  form 
the  habits  necessary  to  school  life.  It  therefore  demands  par- 
ticularly from  the  teachers  a  firm  and  punctual  adherence  to  the 
rules,  which  naturally  must  be  the  same  for  all. 

i.   Before  Schooltime 

§  i.   Schooltime  begins  in  the  summer  semester  at  7  o'clock, 
in  winter  at  8  o'clock  (for  the  lower  classes  at  8  or  9  o'clock). 
H 


98      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Lessons  begin  fifteen  minutes  after  the  hour.  The  school  clock 
gives  the  official  time. 

§  2.  It  is  the  duty  of  pupils  intrusted  with  offices  to  take 
care  that  the  means  of  instruction  which  are  to  be  used,  such  as 
textbooks,  apparatus  for  nature  study,  maps  and  rulers,  slates, 
pencils,  and  so  on,  are  in  the  classroom  hi  due  time  and  in  good 
condition.  Whenever  necessary,  the  teachers  must  give  instruc- 
tion to  those  pupils  who  have  charge  of  these  duties.  During 
the  lessons  pupils  should  not  be  sent  after  apparatus  or  mate- 
rials of  instruction. 

§  3.  As  long  as  no  standing  rule  has  been  laid  down,  the 
teacher  must,  at  the  beginning  of  every  lesson,  ask  the  pupils  in 
charge  to  answer  the  question :  Is  everything  in  order  ?  At  this 
time  also  pupils  should  themselves  announce  absences.  The  chil- 
dren are  to  be  trained  so  that  after  the  command  to  sit  down  has 
been  given,  those  who  have  absences  to  announce  remain  standing. 
These  announcements  are  to  be  given  quickly.  If  longer  discus- 
sions or  punishments  are  required,  the  announcements  are  to  be 
repeated  at  the  close  of  the  lesson. 

§  4.  As  the  instruction  given  can  only  be  successful  if  the  best 
order  is  maintained  throughout  the  lesson,  the  teacher  must,  after 
the  children  have  resumed  their  seats,  pay  attention  to  the  follow- 
ing points :  the  children  should  sit  quietly  but  naturally ;  their 
eyes  should  be  fixed  on  the  teacher ;  their  hands  should  lie  quietly 
on  the  benches;  their  legs  should  be  kept  quiet.  Instruction 
may  not  begin  until  everything  is  hi  order. 

2.   During  and  after  Schooltime 

§  5.  As  far  as  possible  pupils  are  to  be  trained  to  make  an 
independent  statement  concerning  the  home  work  and  the  aim 
of  the  lesson. 

§  6.  During  schooltime  the  same  order  with  which  the  lesson 
was  begun  must  always  be  maintained.  Instruction  may  neither  be 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      QQ 

begun  nor  continued  unless  the  pupils  are  orderly  and  keep  their 
eyes  fixed  on  the  teacher ;  but  the  necessary  order  should  always 
first  be  established  through  looks,  hints,  tapping  on  the  table,  or 
through  such  orders  as  " Eyes ! "  "Look  here  ! "  " Look  at  me  ! " 
Special  attention  must  be  given  to  this  if  the  pupils,  on  account 
of  the  nature  of  the  instruction  given,  need  to  look  for  some  time 
at  illustrative  material  or  at  written  work. 

§  7.  During  instruction  the  teacher  should  so  far  as  possible 
take  a  position  on  a  step  from  which  he  can  overlook  all  the  chil- 
dren. He  should  not  keep  his  eyes  exclusively  on  the  pupil  who 
is  questioned,  or  on  the  pupil  who  is  talking.  He  may  not  without 
necessity  turn  his  back  on  the  class  or  individual  pupils.  He  may 
not  leave  his  place  unless  a  pupil  needs  special  aid.  It  is  not  al- 
lowed to  touch  pupils  or  to  push  them  into  their  seats.  Only  in 
exceptional  cases  is  the  teacher  allowed  to  sit ;  lounging  is  contrary 
to  the  good  order  which  the  teacher  must  preserve  at  all  times. 

§  8.  All  questions  and  explanations  of  the  teacher  must  be 
directed  to  the  whole  class.  The  children  who  wish  to  answer 
the  questions  indicate  it  by  lifting  the  right  hand.  Only  then 
must  a  single  child  be  designated  to  answer  the  question.  Every 
pupil  who  wishes  instruction  is  required  to  lift  his  hand  and  wait 
patiently  until  the  teacher  asks  what  is  wanted.  Restlessness 
and  answering  without  being  asked  are  not  permitted  because 
they  disturb  instruction. 

§  9.  If  the  teacher  has  called  the  name  of  a  child,  the  latter 
rises  quickly,  stands  straight  without  hanging  his  head  or  without 
leaning  on  the  bench.  When  he  answers,  he  speaks  frankly  and 
loudly.  Low  speaking,  generally  a  consequence  of  slyness,  must 
be  overcome  if  possible  through  frequent  speaking  in  concert. 
In  the  use  of  such  an  exercise  the  teacher  should  always  observe 
whether  the  desired  result  is  attained.  To  stoop  to  a  low-speaking 
pupil  means  to  encourage  him  in  his  bad  habit. 

§  10.  All  orders  of  the  teacher  which  concern  the  class  at  large, 
such  as  taking  and  putting  away  textbooks,  copy  books,  and 


IOO  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

writing  utensils,  the  orderly  distribution  and  collection  of  copy 
books,  drawing  books,  textbooks,  and  other  means  of  instruction, 
and  the  formation  of  lines  when  leaving  the  class,  must  be  executed 
to  firm,  single  commands,  counting  the  moments  of  the  action  until 
the  habit  is  firmly  established.  When  such  habits  are  formed, 
they  must  be  continually  controlled.  Such  brief  commands  are: 
"Books  out,"  "Write,"  "Pens  away,"  "Open  your  books,"  "Close 
books,"  "Distribute  copy  books  and  books,"  "Collect  copy  books," 
"Stand  up,"  "Ready,"  "Form  in  line,"  "Go." 

§  ii.  Pupils  should  be  taught  the  proper  use  of  their  books. 
The  following  rules  should  be  especially  observed :  — 

1.  All  textbooks  and  copy  books  must  have  covers  and  blot- 
ters. 

2.  When  words  and  lines  are  to  be  shown  in  reading,  or  places 
on  maps  or  globes,  a  pencil  or  small  stick  should  be  used ;  pupils 
should  not  be  allowed  to  point  with  their  fingers. 

3.  Blackboards  and  slates  should  not  be  wiped  with  the  hands, 
and  they  should  not  be  used  as  long  as  they  are  wet. 

4.  Pencils  and  pens  are  only  to  be  handled  in  writing;   they 
are  to  be  put  aside  as  soon  as  the  work  is  done. 

§  12.  When  the  director  or  visitors  enter  or  leave  the  room, 
the  children  should  rise  and  sit  down  again  upon  a  signal  from  the 
teacher. 

The  candidates  who  observe  should  refrain  from  stating  opinions 
during  instruction.  No  one  but  the  director  or  class  teacher  is 
allowed  to  interfere  in  the  instruction  or  the  government  even  if 
the  teacher  makes  evident  mistakes. 

§  13.  The  continual  observance  of  all  important  hygienic  fac- 
tors, such  as  protection  against  glaring  sunlight,  temperature, 
and  so  on,  is  necessary.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  are  pupils 
permitted  to  leave  the  room. 

§  14.  The  signal  at  the  close  of  the  hour  must  be  given  by  the 
teacher.  It  is  not  permitted  to  prolong  the  lesson  after  the  striking 
of  the  clock  or  to  assign  home  work,  or  to  make  up  for  time  lost 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       IOI 

at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson.  In  exceptional  cases,  such  matters 
may  be  settled  by  appointment  with  the  children  at  the  close  of 
the  forenoon  or  afternoon  period.  The  children  leave  the  room 
quietly  in  pairs. 

§  15.  Especially  at  the  close  of  the  school  day  should  atten- 
tion be  given  to  the  order.  Restlessness  or  premature  packing 
of  school  materials  should  be  punished  instantly  by  sharply  re- 
buking the  children  or  by  not  allowing  them  to  leave  the  school- 
room with  the  other  children. 

§  16.  i.  End  and  purpose  of  personal  help  given.  — Personal  help 
given  to  backward  pupils  should  not  have  the  character  of  a  pun- 
ishment. On  the  other  hand,  keeping  pupils  in  after  school  is  a 
punishment  which  may  also  be  given  to  pupils  in  connection  with 
their  written  and  oral  work  if  this  work  is  continually  neglected, 
especially  if  corrections,  etc.,  are  badly  done  and  if  the  pupils  are 
always  lazy.  Individual  help  given  should,  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word,  help  the  pupil  to  reach  the  aims  of  the  class  and  should 
try  continually  to  raise  him  to  the  level  of  the  class. 

2.  Participation  in  these  lessons  is  determined  by  the  marks 
on  the  written  home  work  and  by  insufficient  knowledge  shown  in 
oral  work.     In  the  first  case,  it  is  left  to  the  teacher  concerned  to 
state  what  mark  he  considers  the  limit  and,  if  there  are  several 
marks,  whether  they  refer  to  form  or  content.     The  general  im- 
pression may  also  suffice.     The  main   requirement  is  thorough 
work,  although  the  individual  natures  of  the  pupils  should  by  no 
means  be  entirely  neglected. 

3.  Who  gives  this  individual  help?  —  Individual  help  to  back- 
ward pupils  is  given  by  a  class  teacher  daily  after  the  regular  les- 
sons.    Those  members,  generally  candidates,  who  are  interested 
in  these  lessons,  may  give  one  or  more  lessons  weekly  after  they 
have  informed  themselves  concerning  the  special  arrangements 
for  the  marking  scale,  the  correction  of  mistakes,  the  treatment 
of  the  pupils,  and  so  on. 

4.  How  is  this  carried  on? — During  these  lessons  the  greatest 


102   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

quiet  possible  for  the  work  of  the  pupils  and  strict  obedience  to 
the  rules  given  should  be  exacted ;  if  an  explanation  which  con- 
cerns all  pupils  is  to  be  given,  the  attention  and  cooperation  of  all 
pupils  should  be  demanded.  It  is  therefore  recommended,  hi 
order  that  the  teacher  may  thoroughly  and  lovingly  devote  him- 
self to  individual  weak  pupils,  that  not  too  many  pupils  should 
remain. 

2.    REGULATIONS   CONCERNING   DISCIPLINE 

Introduction 

Discipline  has  the  same  end  as  instruction,  the  formation  of  a 
moral  and  religious  character  in  the  pupil.  Discipline,  however, 
amis  at  influencing  directly  mind  and  will,  whereas  instruction 
tries  to  reach  the  same  goal  indirectly  through  enlarging  the 
horizon  of  the  pupil's  ideas. 

§  17.  The  following  arrangements  are  means  of  discipline. 

1.  The  morning  devotion.  — Every  school  day  begins  with  a 
general  devotion  for  all  classes.    Prayer  is  said  at  the  close  of 
school. 

2.  The  weekly  devotion  is  conducted  either  by  a  regular  teacher, 
a  class  teacher,  or  a  candidate  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  a 
school  week. 

3.  The  following  occasions  are  celebrated  by  the  school. 

(a)  Birthdays  of  the  Emperor  and  Grand  Duke. 

(b)  Christmas. 

(c)  May  festival. 

(d)  Confirmation  of  pupils. 

4.  School  excursions. 

5.  The  school's  saving  fund  is  especially  to  be  recommended 
to  those  pupils  who  take  part  in  the  school  excursions,  so  that  they 
may  save  the  money  necessary  for  these  expenses. 

6.  The  candidates  should  be  heartily  interested  in  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  school  library. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       103 

7.  Offices  of  pupils.  —  Individual  pupils  are  appointed  to  differ- 
ent duties  in  the  school,  garden,  or  workshop.     Every  office  is 
a  post  of  honor.     Two  pupils  especially  (Klassenordner) ,  who  are 
named  alphabetically  and  who  change  weekly,  have  the  following 
duties :  — 

(a)  To  keep  blackboard,  sponge,  and  chalk  hi  order. 

(b)  To  clean  the  teacher's  desk  and  chair. 

(c)  To  open  the  windows  during  recess  periods. 

(d)  To  write  the  date  on  a  little  slate  in  every  classroom. 

(e)  To  procure  clean  water  in  jug  and  basin. 
(/)   To  fill  the  inkstands  upon  request. 

One  pupil  should  be  permanently  intrusted  with  the  care  of 
books,  copy  books,  and  other  means  of  instruction  in  the  class- 
room cupboard,  as  well  as  with  bringing,  distributing,  and  collect- 
ing them. 

Individual  pupils  are  also  to  be  intrusted  for  a  whole  semester 
with  the  bringing  and  putting  away  of  means  of  instruction  for 
different  subjects,  such  as  maps,  rulers,  compasses.  In  all  these 
cases  the  individual  nature  of  the  pupil  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration as  far  as  possible. 

Every  duty  should  aim  at  forming  a  fixed  habit. 

8.  The  record  book.  —  Candidates  as  well  as  regular  teachers 
should  try  through  personal  visits  to  get  acquainted  with  the 
parents  of  the  pupils  and  to  influence  them  spiritually.     They  are 
recommended  to  watch  every  single  pupil  during  the  lesson,  in 
the  garden  or  workshop,  or  on  the  playground,  to  acquaint  them- 
selves more  closely  with  them  on  excursions  and  journeys,  and  to 
enter  into  their  thoughts  and  their  conditions  of  life.     If  this  is 
done  in  the  right  way,  the  idea  of  being  questioned  will  not  be 
wakened  in  the  pupil.     On  the  contrary,  the  teacher  will  win  the 
heart,  and  the  pupil  will  freely  converse  about  everything  on  his 
mind,  will  gladly  seek  his  teacher's  advice,  and  so  their  mutual 
intercourse  may  indirectly  serve  character  building.     The  obser- 
vations made  are  collected,  and  written  in  a  special  book  for  each 


104   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

class,  and  if  enough  material  is  collected,  it  is  made  into  a  personal 
record  and  written  in  a  record  book. 

The  following  scheme  should  be  observed :  — 

(a)  Home  conditions. 

(&)  Age,  previous  training. 

(c)  External  appearance,  physical  features,  state  of   health, 
carriage  and  look,  order  in  dress  and  in  school  equipment. 

(d)  Development  of  the  intellectual  side  (abilities,   participa- 
tion in  the  lessons,  home  work,  favorite  work,  and  tendencies). 

(e)  Expression  of  emotions  (intellectual,  moral,  aesthetic,  re- 
ligious emotions ;  intercourse  with  members  of  his  home,  and  with 
teachers  and  comrades). 

(/)  Proposals  for  the  correction  of  defects  in  government, 
instruction,  or  discipline. 

In  making  these  records,  special  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  causal  connection  of  observations  and  experiences. 

3.    PUNISHMENTS 

All  school  punishments  should  be  considered  as  corrective 
means  which  influence  the  pupil  either  directly  (habituating  him 
to  order)  or  indirectly.  They  can  be  divided  into  two  groups: 
punishments  for  government  and  punishments  for  discipline. 

i .  Punishments  for  government.  —  Punishments  for  government 
aim  at  reestablishing  the  disturbed  order  during  instruction. 
The  goal  to  be  aimed  at  is  therefore  avoidance  of  punishments 
as  far  as  possible  through  constant  training. 

§  18.  Special  points  to  be  attended  to  are :  Children  who  enter 
after  the  teacher  must  remain  at  the  door  until  the  teacher  tells 
them  to  sit  down.  The  teacher  must  not  wait  too  long  before 
giving  this  command,  but  he  should  first  ask  an  explanation  of  the 
late  arrival.  The  punishment  for  this  loss  of  time,  if  it  is  disadvan- 
tageous to  the  pupil  in  his  lessons,  is  to  make  up  the  work  missed 
under  supervision  of  a  regular  or  a  class  teacher.  In  order  to  re- 
move the  cause  of  such  loss  of  tune  the  teachers  should  often 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       10$ 

communicate  with  parents  (communication  blanks,  parents' 
evenings). 

§  19.  The  rules  of  government  for  the  preservation  of  order 
during  school  time  can  be  divided  into  special  and  general  rules. 
The  teacher  should  usually  try  to  get  along  with  the  general  rules. 

In  ascending  order  the  general  rules  are :  — 

(a)  To  stop  instruction. 

(b)  To  tap  on  the  table. 

(c)  To  warn  the  whole  class  or  a  whole  bench. 

(d)  To  censure  and  threaten  pupils  without  naming  them. 
Special  rules  are :  — 

(a)  Sharp  look  and  motion  with  the  hand. 

(b)  Speaking  to  the  pupil. 

(c)  Threat  of  punishment  and  naming  the  pupil. 

(d)  To  have  the  pupil  leave  his  seat  and  stand  aside  or  in  the 
background.    In  such  cases,  however,  attention  should  be  paid 
to  the  pupil's  attitude. 

(e)  Personal  report  to  the  teacher  concerned  or  to  the  regular 
teacher. 

§  20.  In  inflicting  punishments  the  ascending  steps  should  be 
followed  by  the  teacher.  No  step  may  either  be  overlooked  or 
repeated.  If  a  punishment  has  been  threatened,  it  should  really 
be  given  in  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offense.  Exclusion  from  the 
class,  or  standing  outside  the  door,  or  corporal  punishment  is  not 
permitted. 

§  21.  It  is  not  allowed  to  keep  pupils  in  school  as  a  means  of 
punishment.  If  the  pupil,  however,  misses  part  of  the  instruc- 
tion through  his  own  fault  as  well  as  on  account  of  tardiness,  he 
should  be  punished  by  being  required  to  do  the  work  after  school- 
tune. 

§  22.  If  several  pupils  cannot  accomplish  the  same  work,  they 
may  not  be  punished,  but  a  more  thorough,  methodical  treatment 
of  the  material  should  be  introduced ;  the  teacher  should  always 
first  seek  within  himself  the  reasons  for  the  mistakes  made. 


IO6   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

§  23.  If  the  home  work  is  neglected,  the  punishments  should 
always  be  graded.  Before  the  next  lesson  period  the  pupil  must 
appear  with  the  deficient  work  done ;  that  is  to  say,  he  must 
recite  the  lesson  or  present  the  work  to  the  teacher  outside  of  school 
or  do  the  work  after  schooltime  under  personal  supervision  of 
the  teacher. 

§  24.  It  is  just  as  wrong  to  give  special  work  hours  as  punish- 
ments as  it  is  to  make  pupils  copy  too  often  badly  done  home 
work,  although  it  is  quite  appropriate  to  inculcate  the  right  form 
by  requiring  the  pupil  to  copy  the  written  work  two  or  three 
times  if  this  result  cannot  be  reached  otherwise. 

§  25.  If  the  pupil  has  forgotten  to  bring  something  which  is 
needed  in  instruction  and  during  a  lesson,  he  should  show  the 
teacher  before  the  next  lesson  what  he  needs  for  the  lesson,  and  if 
the  forgetfulness  occurs  again,  he  must  do  the  same  for  some  tune, 
before  each  lesson.  In  order  to  train  the  pupils  in  orderliness,  the 
class  teacher  must,  from  time  to  time,  inspect  the  books.  Special 
attention  should  be  given  that  the  pupils  do  not  bring  to  school 
books  or  copy  books  which  they  do  not  need. 

§  26.  Wherever  absences  and  breaches  of  order  and  customs 
violate  standing  rules  and  arrangements,  the  latter  are  to  be  ex- 
pressly called  to  the  attention  of  the  pupils. 

§  27.  Unbecoming,  untimely  questions  and  manifestations  of 
doubts  must  be  put  aside  without  further  discussion.  Questions 
and  doubts  which  the  children  do  not  ask  for  their  instruction, 
but  only  to  embarrass  the  teacher,  injure  his  authority.  Teachers 
can  sometimes  refer  during  the  lesson  or  during  conversation  to 
these  questions  and  show  the  pupils  how  wrong  or  how  irrelevant 
they  were. 

2.  Punishments  for  discipline.  —  The  second  group  of  punish- 
ments are  those  for  discipline.  By  them  the  pupil's  mind  is  to  be 
influenced  indirectly.  In  such  cases,  more  important  than  the 
correction  of  mistakes  and  the  watching  out  for  the  violation  of 
rules  and  for  punishments  are  positive  means  for  sharpening, 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       1 07 

warning,  and  stimulating  the  moral  judgment,  such  as  free  con- 
versations, frequent  discussion  of  events  from  the  moral  point 
of  view,  and  encouragement  to  put  into  action  worthful  ideas; 
for  instance,  in  the  form  of  thankfulness,  pity,  and  affection. 

§  28.  If  rules  have  been  violated,  the  following  facts  should 
be  considered :  the  teacher  must  learn  the  facts  without  any  kind 
of  force ;  by  no  means,  however,  should  this  be  done  through  one 
inquiry  only,  because  the  boy  only  too  easily  escapes  such  inquiries 
through  quick  falsehood.  The  teacher  should  beware  of  getting 
a  false  notion  of  the  facts  through  a  mistaken  construction  of  what 
has  happened.  He  should  not  be  influenced  against  the  offender 
by  previous  misdoings  or  by  accompanying  circumstances. 

§  29.  The  punishment  should  correspond  to  the  offense  and 
may  be  raised  to  corporal  punishment,  which,  however,  may  only 
be  given  by  the  class  teacher  concerned.  Discussion  of  the  case 
before  the  class  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  special  punishment. 

§  30.  In  general  the  following  points  should  be  considered : 
the  principal  rule  for  all  punishment  is  that  it  must  be  proportionate 
to  the  offense.  It  must  be  given  without  passion,  with  the  neces- 
sary moral  earnestness ;  but  cold  discipline  may  not  be  substituted 
for  affectionate  treatment. 

§  31.  The  punishment  must  lead  the  pupil  to  a  recognition  of 
his  mistake.  His  comrades  must  also  be  made  to  feel  that  the 
punishment  is  just. 

Leipsic.  —  For  fifty  years  Leipsic  has  been  prominent 
as  the  home  of  pedagogical  seminars.  The  first  one, 
founded  by  Ziller  as  a  private  enterprise  in  1861,  was 
modeled  after  the  seminar  at  Jena  and,  like  it,  was  con- 
ducted on  Herbartian  principles  in  both  theory  and 
practice.  Its  purpose  was  the  training  of  teachers  and 
school  officials,  and  the  advancement  of  pedagogical 


108       TRAINING  "OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

science.  Students  were  required  to  spend  one  year  hear- 
ing lectures  in  the  philosophical  sciences  —  logic,  psychol- 
ogy, aesthetics,  metaphysics,  ethics,  philosophy  of  reli- 
gion, and  the  history  of  pedagogy  —  before  they  entered 
the  seminar.  They  then  spent  one  year  in  observation, 
practice  teaching,  and  criticism  of  the  work  done.  The 
total  number  of  hours  required  did  not  exceed  five  per 
week,  but  at  least  two  hours  of  teaching  hi  the  prac- 
tice school  were  necessary.  The  practice  school  was 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  three  well-trained 
candidates;  one  chosen  from  the  field  of  theology, 
the  second  from  that  of  philology,  and  the  third 
from  that  of  mathematics.  These  teachers  taught 
in  the  school  and  supervised  the  practice  teach- 
ing under  the  general  superintendence  of  the  director. 
The  school  consisted  of  three  classes,  with  six  boys  in 
each,  the  lowest  representing  the  Volksschule,  in  the 
years  from  six  to  nine ;  the  second  the  Realschule,  in  the 
years  from  nine  to  twelve ;  and  the  third  the  Gymnasium, 
in  the  years  from  twelve  to  fifteen.  The  pupils  were 
taken  from  a  philanthropic  institution  and  received 
nine  years  of  schooling.  All  the  work  was  carefully 
criticized,  and  the  results  were  recorded  for  the  benefit  of 
pedagogical  science.  There  were  three  weekly  gatherings 
of  the  students:  the  theoreticum,  the  praticum,  and  the 
conference.  The  first  was  devoted  mainly  to  the  presen- 
tation of  reports  by  students  upon  some  educational  topic, 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       IOQ 

usually  theoretical.  Voluntary  efforts  in  this  direction 
were  strongly  encouraged.  Two  half -hour  practicums 
were  held  each  week.  They  consisted  of  trial  lessons 
given  by  a  student  in  the  presence  of  all  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  seminar.  He  must  have  made  careful  prepara- 
tion for  this  lesson  under  the  supervision  of  the  director 
or  the  regular  teachers.  The  conference  was  devoted  to 
discussion  and  criticism  of  the  trial  lessons  and  to  a  con- 
sideration of  school  facilities  in  general.  The  director  gave 
the  final  word  on  all  these  occasions.  Ziller's  seminar, 
always  a  private  institution,  continued  until  the  death  of 
the  founder  in  1882.  After  that  time  the  theoretical  part 
of  it  was  continued  through  the  pedagogical  society, 
which  still  survives,  but  the  practice  school  disappeared. 
Two  other  seminars,  also  private  efforts,  have  been 
conducted  by  university  professors.  Dr.  Striimpell,  as- 
sociate (ausserordentlicher)  professor  of  philosophy  and 
pedagogy,  directed  one,  the  special  purpose  of  which  was 
the  application  of  psychological  principles  to  education. 
The  members  consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  teachers 
from  the  Volksschulen  who  were  preparing  for  higher 
positions.  The  other,  which  still  exists,  is  led  by  Dr. 
Hofmann,  professor  of  theology.  The  purpose  of  this 
is,  by  means  of  lectures  and  the  industrious  visitation 
of  schools  of  all  kinds,  to  give  theological  students  an 
insight  into  the  different  parts  of  the  German  educa- 
tional system.  It  has  special  value  because  of  the 


IIO   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

fact  that  clergymen,  particularly  those  in  the  rural 
districts,  have  much  responsibility  in  school  affairs. 

There  are  now  at  Leipsic  two  pedagogical  seminars 
which  stand  in  official  connection  with  the  university,  — 
a  philosophical-pedagogical  seminar,  led  by  Professor 
Volkelt,  and  a  practical-pedagogical  seminar,  directed  by 
Professor  Jungmann,  who  is  also  rector  of  the  Thomas 
Gymnasium.  The  former,  holding  weekly  sessions  of  two 
hours  each,  is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  educational 
questions  from  the  broadly  philosophical  point  of  view. 
The  latter,  holding  weekly  sessions  of  two  hours  each  in 
the  Gymnasium,  is  devoted  to  visiting  the  classes  of  ex- 
perienced teachers,  practice  teaching  by  students,  and 
criticism  of  the  work  done.  Professor  Jungmann  is  as- 
sisted by  teachers  in  the  Gymnasium,  —  Dr.  Hartman, 
who  conducts  the  work  hi  English  and  French,  and  Dr. 
Lehman,  who  is  in  charge  of  mathematics  and  the  natu- 
ral sciences.  Professor  Jungmann  himself  directs  the 
work  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  history.  Students  visit  the 
classes  of  these  teachers,  and  occasionally  teach  classes 
under  their  supervision.  Some  students  take  the  work 
for  a  single  semester,  others  continue  it  for  two  or  three 
semesters.  The  work  of  these  seminars  is  elective,  as  are 
all  other  courses  in  the  university,  but  an  increasingly 
large  number  of  students  attend  them. 

The  official  regulations  of  the  practical  seminar  are  as 
follows :  — 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       III 

"§  i.  The  purpose  of  the  seminar  is  to  instruct  its  members 
in  the  application  of  their  scientific  learning  to  practical  teaching 
in  the  higher  schools. 

"  §  2.  The  seminar  stands  in  connection  with  a  Gymnasium 
in  Leipsic.  The  director  or  a  teacher  of  the  Gymnasium  has  the 
leadership  of  the  seminar  and  at  the  same  time  the  authority  to 
give  instruction  in  pedagogy  in  the  university.  For  the  direction 
of  special  exercises  in  particular  subjects,  two  other  teachers  hi 
the  Gymnasium  or  Realgymnasium  are  associated  with  him,  so  that 
three  subject  groups  are  formed  which  include,  as  a  rule,  the  an- 
cient languages,  the  modern  languages,  and  mathematics  and  the 
natural  sciences.  The  Gymnasium  places  pupils,  equipment,  and 
rooms  at  the  service  of  the  seminar. 

"§3.  The  exercises  of  the  seminar  consist  hi  so-called  model 
lessons;  in  practice  teaching  by  the  members,  who  are  assigned 
to  this  work  on  the  basis  of  written  lessbn  plans;  in  general  dis- 
cussion of  these  lessons ;  in  other  didactical  and  pedagogical  dis- 
cussions; and  in  the  visitation  of  planned  periods  of  instruction 
in  the  Gymnasium. 

"§  4.  Students  of  academic  subjects  that  are  required  for 
the  position  of  teacher  hi  the  higher  schools,  can  become  members 
of  the  seminar  after  they  have  pursued  their  studies  some  time, 
as  a  rule  at  least  four  semesters,  or,  if  they  attend  the  university 
under  the  provision  of  June  i,  1865,  two  semesters.  Students 
who  have  not  fulfilled  these  conditions  may  be  admitted  as  hearers. 
In  either  case  the  applicants  are  required  to  introduce  themselves 
personally  to  the  director  of  the  seminar  and  to  the  leader  of  their 
particular  subject  group. 

"§5.  The  members  of  the  seminar  are  required  to  attend 
regularly  the  general  sessions  as  well  as  the  meetings  of  their  own 
subject  groups,  and  to  take  part  in  the  exercises,  especially  hi  the 
practice  teaching.  The  frequent  visitation  of  other  subject  groups 
is  urgently  recommended. 

"§  6.  For  the  members  of  the  seminar  a  number  of  scholar- 


112   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

ships  have  been  established  in  the  assignment  of  which  residents 
of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  are  given  the  preference.  These  schol- 
arships are  assigned  at  the  close  of  the  semester  by  the  director 
hi  accordance  with  the  decision  of  the  leaders  of  the  seminar,  on 
the  basis  of  the  work  done  in  the  seminar  and  the  attendance  upon 
the  different  groups.  In  case  a  scholarship  is  given  to  a  person 
who  has  also  received  one  of  the  scholarships  granted  by  the 
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  or  to  a  person  who  has  also  the 
scholarship  granted  to  the  holder  as  a  member  of  the  philological 
seminar,  it  is  reduced  to  half  the  usual  amount. 

"§7.  The  members  have  a  right  to  the  use  of  the  seminar 
library. 

"§  8.  Upon  his  departure  from  the  seminar  every  member 
can  demand  a  certificate,  which  is  to  be  given  by  the  leader  of  the 
subject  group  and  countersigned  by  the  director.  These  certifi- 
cates must  be  affixed  to  the  petition  to  the  Royal  Ministry  of 
Public  Instruction  when  the  candidates  are  admitted  to  the  Probe- 
jahr. 

"§9.  The  director  is  required  to  present  to  the  Royal  Min- 
istry at  the  close  of  each  semester  a  list  of  the  members  and  hearers 
of  the  seminar  and  a  short  report  concerning  the  work  of  the 
seminar. 

"§  10.  Every  member  receives  a  copy  of  these  rules  upon  enter- 
ing the  seminar." 

THE   GYMNASIAL   SEMINAR 

A.  The  Royal  Pedagogical  Seminar  in  Berlin  was  the 

first  gymnasial  or  higher  school  seminar  established  with 
state  funds  and  managed  directly  by  the  state.  As  has 
been  said,  the  Minister  of  State,  von  Zedlitz,  tried  in  vain 
to  establish  at  Halle  an  institution  that  should  have  as  its 
particular  object  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  higher 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS 

schools  along  distinctively  pedagogical  lines.  Schutz 
accepted  a  call  to  Jena,  Trapp  failed  in  his  efforts,  and 
Wolf  insisted  successfully  upon  changing  the  pedagogical 
seminar  into  a  philological  seminar.  Von  Zedlitz  was  not 
to  be  baffled  in  his  purpose,  however,  and  the  same  year 
that  the  pedagogical  seminar  disappeared  at  Halle, 
Friederich  Gedike,  director  of  the  Fr.  Werder'sches 
Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  a  very  able  and  much-honored 
schoolman,  received  from  the  Oberschulkollegium  an 
invitation  to  draw  up  plans  for  the  "  establishment  of 
a  free  institution  for  school  teachers  in  the  higher 
schools." 

The  seminar  was  opened  in  connection  with  Gedike's 
school.  Fries  writes  concerning  it: — 

"Its  purpose  was  stated  as  the  training  of  experienced  and 
skillful  teachers  for  Gymnasien  and  Latin  schools,  consequently 
the  instruction  was  to  be  both  theoretical  and  practical.  This 
instruction  would  be  gained  through  a  study  of  pedagogical  trea- 
tises and  the  best  writings  on  schools  and  education,  which  should 
be  furnished  by  the  library  to  be  established  in  connection  with  the 
seminar;  and  also  through  the  visiting  of  classes  and  practice 
under  the  supervision  of  the  director  and  according  to  his  assign- 
ment. The  greatest  possible  regard  for  gymnasial  instruction  was 
shown.  For  the  practical  training  of  the  candidates  the  further 
assistance  of  three  talented,  experienced,  and  trained  teachers  was 
provided.  The  seminar  was  open  to  young  men  who  had  already 
finished  their  studies.  They  were  accepted  after  examination 
and  the  giving  of  a  trial  lesson.  Gedike  himself  would  have  ad- 
mitted also  candidates  who  had  finished  the  Gymnasium  with  honor 
but  had  not  yet  attended  the  university.  These  he  would  have 


114   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

trained  to  give  instruction  in  the  lower  classes ;  indeed  he  proposed 
that  graduates  of  the  Gymnasium  who  showed  unusual  inclination 
and  talent  for  teaching  should  be  trained  for  their  future  calling 
by  means  of  actual  practice. 

"The  seminar  was  established  at  Easter,  1788,  and  later  in 
the  year  it  was  given  fixed  form  through  a  particular  bill  of  instruc- 
tions. According  to  this  the  members  of  the  seminar  were  re- 
quired to  produce  a  pedagogical  essay  every  three  months,  the  sub- 
ject to  be  chosen  by  themselves  but  to  stand  in  the  closest  possible 
relation  to  their  own  practice.  These  essays  were  read  and  criti- 
cized in  the  monthly  sessions.  Written  opinions  concerning  each 
were  read  at  the  following  session.  This  method  of  treatment  was 
very  thorough,  but  it  required  too  much  time  to  carry  it  out; 
because  the  sessions,  in  which  the  assistants  of  the  director  and  all 
the  regular  teachers  of  the  school  took  as  much  part  as  they  de- 
sired, were  occupied  with  other  subjects  also;  as,  for  example, 
new  pedagogical  publications  and  reports  concerning  school  exam- 
inations and  school  regulations.  The  candidates  visited  the 
classes  of  the  director  and  other  teachers  of  the  institution  as  well 
as  one  another's  classes.  They  had  ten  hours  of  teaching,  in 
subjects  which  changed  every  half  year.  They  stood  subject  to 
order  in  case  of  inspection,  substitution,  or  necessary  absence  of 
the  director,  and  they  served  as  official  advisers  of  the  classes 
in  which  they  gave  instruction.  As  the  instructions  contained 
pedagogical  advice  which  was  purposeful  and  based  upon  intelli- 
gent experience,  the  candidates  found  special  opportunity  for 
exercise  in  training  in  the  fact  that  they  were  assigned  as  tutors 
to  such  pupils  as  stood  in  need  of  general  oversight  and  particular 
care  on  account  of  disorder,  inattention,  or  laziness.  The  budget 
of  the  institution  amounted  to  one  thousand  thalers  [about  $750], 
from  which  each  candidate  received  a  stipendium  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thalers.  Even  though  the  introduction  to  theory 
stood  somewhat  in  the  background,  on  the  whole,  the  institution 
was  effective,  and  it  soon  won  so  much  regard  and  confidence  that 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       11$ 

several  candidates  were  called  directly  from  the  seminar  to  im- 
portant official  positions."  1 

This  seminar  still  exists,  although  in  1869  its  direct 
leadership  passed  to  the  provincial  school  board.  It 
may  be  taken  as  typical  of  a  group  of  about  a  dozen 
higher-school  seminars  whose  immediate  direction  is 
vested  in  a  member  of  the  provincial  school  board.  In 
such  seminars  the  candidate  receives  his  theoretical 
instruction  from  the  director  of  the  seminar  and  his 
practical  training  under  the  supervision  of  the  director 
of  the  higher  school  in  which  he  teaches.  The  work 
itself  is  practically  the  same  as  that  done  in  the  ordi- 
nary gymnasial  seminar  in  which  the  director  of  the 
school  is  also  director  of  the  seminar. 

B.  The  Seminarium  Praeceptorum,  at  Halle,  is  an 
excellent  example  of  the  more  common  type  of  gymna- 
sial seminars.  It  was  originally  established  by  August 
Hermann  Francke  (1663-1727),  the  illustrious  founder  of 
the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  in  that  city.  Francke  was 
both  a  prophet  and  a  path-finder  in  the  field  of  education. 
While  serving  as  professor  of  theology  in  the  university  and 
pastor  of  a  church  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  he  found  ad- 
ditional outlet  for  his  indomitable  philanthropic  energies 
in  the  founding,  in  1695,  of  a  free  school  for  poor  children. 
This  was  followed  by  the  establishment  in  quick  succes- 
sion of  a  school  for  the  children  of  the  middle  classes,  1695  > 

1  Fries,  W.,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fur  das  Lehramt,  50. 


Il6   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

an  orphanage,  1695;  a  Latin  school  (now  &  Gymnasium}, 
1697  ;  two  boarding  homes  for  pupils,  1696  and  1697  ;  a 
bookstore  and  a  drug  store,  1698;  a  book  bindery,  1701; 
a  mission  association,  1705  ;  a  fund  for  the  care  of  young 
women,  1 706  ;  and  a  fund  for  the  printing  and  distribu- 
tion of  Bibles,  1710.  All  these  institutions  were  placed 
together  under  one  management  on  a  tract  of  land  con- 
taining about  forty-five  acres  and  lying  near  the  center  of 
the  present  city  of  Halle.  Since  Francke's  death,  there 
have  been  added  a  city  choir,  1808 ;  axiOberrealschule  and  a 
higher  girls'  school,  1835  ;  a  Vorschule  for  the  Gymnasium 
and  Oberrealschule,  1845  >  an(^  more  recently  a  seminar 
or  normal  school  for  the  training  of  female  teachers,  and 
a  gymnasial  seminar  for  the  training  of  male  teachers 
for  the  higher  schools.  The  total  enrollment  of  pupils  in 
all  the  schools  is  now  about  thirty-three  hundred. 

At  its  beginning,  this  institution  had  an  endowment  of 
only  seven  gulden,  the  gift  of  an  unknown  friend;  but  it 
had  rare  treasures  in  the  faith  and  executive  ability  of  its 
founder.  The  monument  erected  to  Francke's  memory 
on  the  school  grounds  bears  the  significant  words,  "  He 
trusted  God."  Both  his  faith  and  his  works  so  appealed 
to  men  of  wealth  that  means  was  not  lacking  to  carry  out 
his  constantly  enlarging  plans.  It  was  not  so  easy,  how- 
ever, to  secure  teachers  of  suitable  character  and  training. 
With  real  constructive  genius  Francke  set  about  training 
teachers  both  for  his  schools  and  for  others.  The  means 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       IIJ 

at  his  command  enabled  him  to  provide  a  free  table  for 
impecunious  young  men  of  ability  who  were  willing  to 
devote  themselves  diligently  to  preparation  for  the  work 
of  teaching.  Others  came  who  were  able  to  support  them- 
selves. All  were  required  to  pledge  themselves  to  spend 
five  years  in  preparation  for  their  wrok.  In  1706  there 
were  seventy-two  members  of  the  seminarium  pracep- 
torum,  and  in  1709  about  ninety.  It  was  soon  learned, 
however,  that  many  of  these  candidates  for  the  teaching 
office  were  poorly  prepared  for  their  work  and  showed  lit- 
tle promise.  Consequently,  in  1707,  Francke  divided  the 
seminar  and  formed  what  he  called  the  seminarium 
selectum  praceptorum  whose  members,  showing  greater 
ability  than  the  others,  he  desired  to  train  for  positions  in 
the  gymnasial  schools.  The  training  given  these  men  was 
of  two  kinds,  academic  and  practical.  The  former  con- 
sisted in  the  study  of  subject  matter,  mainly  the  lan- 
guages. Particular  emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  mastery 
of  the  Latin  language  for  conversational  use.  The  candi- 
dates were  given  opportunity  to  acquaint  themselves 
thoroughly  with  the  actual  work  and  problems  of  the 
school.  Instruction  in  the  principles  of  teaching  and  the 
observation  of  good  teaching  preceded  actual  practice. 
At  one  time  there  were  two  inspectors  who  did  no  teaching 
themselves  but  spent  their  time  directing  the  observa- 
tions and  practice  teaching  of  the  candidates.  Weekly 
meetings  were  held  for  the  discussion  of  observations  and 


Il8   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

practice  teaching.  The  seminar  stood  in  very  close  con- 
nection with  the  Latin  school  or  Gymnasium.  It  was  so 
prosperous  that  in  1715  a  house  was  built  for  the  use  of 
candidates  as  a  home. 

But  the  movement  was  ahead  of  its  time.  The  regular 
university  triennium  was  usually  regarded  as  long  enough 
in  which  to  prepare  for  the  work  of  teaching,  and  young 
men  became  unwilling  to  pledge  themselves  to  attendance 
upon  the  seminar  for  five  years.  Before  Francke's  death 
the  attendance  had  considerably  decreased,  and  in  1779 
the  seminar  was  discontinued  entirely. 

The  modern  seminarium  prceceptorum,  or  gymnasial 
seminar  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen,  was  established  in 
1 88 1.  In  the  nearly  two  centuries  that  had  elapsed  since 
the  founding  of  the  first  one  by  Francke,  official  opinion 
concerning  the  necessity  and  the  methods  of  training 
teachers  for  the  higher  schools  had  advanced.  For  more 
than  a  half  century  the  candidate  had  been  required  to 
spend  one  year  in  trial  teaching  after  three  years'  study 
at  the  university.  Dr.  Otto  Frick,  who  became  director 
of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  in  1880,  brought  to  the 
position  a  breadth  of  scholarship,  force  of  character, 
wealth  of  experience,  and  zeal  for  the  work  of  the  teacher 
that  peculiarly  fitted  him  to  become  the  second  founder  of 
the  seminarium  prceceptorum.  The  work  was  undertaken 
as  a  private  effort  and  was  carried  on  so  efficiently  and 
vigorously  that  it  soon  became  a  powerful  influence  in 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS 

determining  the  course  of  teacher  training  in  Prussia. 
Fries  says  that  "  from  here  went  out  the  impulse  for  the 
establishment  of  the  Prussian  gymnasial  seminar."  1 

In  his  plans  for  the  seminar,  Frick  assumed  a  knowledge 
of  subject  matter  on  the  part  of  the  candidates,  since  the 
three  years'  study  at  the  university,  followed  by  the 
state  examination,  provided  for  that,  and  he  devoted  his 
efforts  to  training  along  pedagogical  lines,  both  theoretical 
and  practical.  The  former  consisted  of  a  study  of  general 
and  special  pedagogy  with  an  introduction  to  pedagogical 
literature.  The  latter  consisted  of  the  observation  of 
good  teaching,  the  preparation  of  lesson  plans,  practice 
teaching  in  the  Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium,  and  the 
discussion  of  both  theoretical  and  practical  questions 
under  the  leadership  of  the  director.  Frick  made  much 
use  of  the  Volksschulen  and  Biirgerschulen  for  purposes 
of  observation,  as  he  believed  that  in  them  the  problems 
of  method  could  be  better  studied  than  in  the  higher 
schools.  The  modern  gymnasial  seminar,  which  now  ex- 
ists throughout  Prussia  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
other  German  states,  owes  much  to  the  practical  work 
and  the  writings  of  Frick  from  1881  to  his  death  in  1892. 
In  1884  Frick  and  a  colleague  founded  Lehrproben  und 
Lekrgange,  a  quarterly  magazine  devoted  to  a  discussion 
of  the  problems  connected  with  the  training  of  teachers 
for  the  higher  schools,  and  this  is  continued  under  the 
management  of  his  successor. 

1  Fries,  W.,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer,  p.  69. 


120   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

With  this  brief  historical  sketch  we  pass  to  a  somewhat 
more  detailed  account  of  the  seminarium  praceptorum  or 
higher  school  seminar  as  it  exists  at  Halle  to-day.  The 
description  is  based  upon  observation,  made  during  six 
months'  attendance  upon  the  meetings  of  the  seminar  and 
rather  close  association  with  the  director  and  its  members. 

The  director  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  success 
of  a  pedagogical  seminar.  Dr.  Wilhelm  Fries,  director  of 
the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  and  of  the  seminar  since  1892, 
is  a  worthy  successor  of  Frick  and  Francke.  He  was  born 
at  Landeshut  in  Schlesien,  October  23,  1845,  and  received 
his  university  preparatory  training  in  the  Gymnasium  at 
Schweidnitz.  In  the  University  of  Breslau  he  studied 
classical  philology,  German  language  and  literature,  and 
history,  receiving  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in 
1870.  His  Probejahr  was  spent  in  Breslau.  He  was 
appointed  as  regular  teacher  (ordentlicher  Lehrer)  and 
librarian  in  the  Gymnasium  in  Bielefeld,  and  later  as 
teacher  (Oberlehrer)  in  the  Gymnasium  in  Barmen.  In 
1880-1881  he  was  director  of  the  Gymnasium  at  Eutin. 
From  1881  to  1892  he  served  as  director  of  the  Latina 
(Gymnasium)  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  and  as  co- 
director  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen.  Since  1892  he 
has  been  director  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen,  since 
1895  director  of  Wissenschaftlichen  Prufungscommissionen 
for  teachers  in  the  higher  schools,  and  since  1897  Pro~ 
fessor  of  pedagogy  in  the  university  of  Halle.  In  1898 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS       121 

he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  from 
the  university  of  Halle  and  also  the  title  Geheimer 
Regierungsrat. 

In  a  career  largely  occupied  with  executive  duties  Dr. 
Fries  has  yet  found  time  for  much  writing.  In  the  field 
of  Latin  and  Greek,  the  subjects  in  which  he  specialized 
in  the  university  and  which  he  taught  in  the  Gymnasium, 
he  has  written :  Neubearbeitung  der  lateinischen  Gram- 
matik  von  Ettendt-Seyffert;  Lateinisches  Ubungsbuch  fur 
alle  Klassen;  Das  Memoriren  im  lateinischen  Unter- 
richt,  Programm,  Eutin,  1881 ;  many  articles  in  Neue 
Jahrbiicher,  in  Zeitschrift  filr  Gymnasialwesen,  and  in 
Lehrproben  und  Lehrgange;  De  anacoluthis  Sophoclis, 
Breslau/iSyi ;  De  casibus  absolutis  qui  dicuntur,  Bielefeld, 
1875 ;  Neuausgabe  von  Arnold,  Die  griechisclien  Studien 
des  Horaz,  1890 ;  Schulausgabe  von  Caesar  Bellum  Gatti- 
cum,  1902.  His  pedagogical  writings  include  the  follow- 
ing :  Die  Vorbildiing  der  Lehrer  filr  das  hohere  Schulamt, 
Munich,  1895  (new  edition  in  preparation) ;  many  articles 
in  Zeitschrift  filr  Gymnasialwesen,  in  Lehrproben  und  Lehr- 
gange, in  Lexis'  Das  deutsche  Schulivesen,  and  in  Die  Reform 
des  hdheren  Schulivesens .  Historical  writings  in  connection 
with  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  include  Francke's  Grosser 
Aufsatz,  Halle,  1894 ;  Die  Franckesche  Stiftungen  in  ihrem 
zweiten  Jahrhundert,  Halle,  1898 ;  articles  in  Lehrproben 
und  Lehrgange,  and  in  Encyclopadisches  Handbuch  der 
Padagogik  by  Rein.  He  is  principal  editor  of  Lehrproben 


122       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

und  Lehrgdnge,  a  quarterly  magazine  which  is  the  leading 
publication  of  its  kind  in  Germany. 

Dr.  Fries  impresses  the  observer  as  a  dignified,  courte- 
ous gentleman,  at  once  scholarly  and  military  in  spirit 
and  bearing.  His  white  hair  and  beard  give  him  a  vener- 
able appearance;  but  his  quick,  firm,  elastic  step,  his 
appreciation  of  the  humorous,  and  the  vigorous  energy 
of  his  mental  faculties  show  that  he  is  still  young.  In  a 
very  important  sense  he  brings  to  his  position  the  ex- 
perience of  many  years  without  age.  He  is  a  product 
of  classical  training  in  Gymnasium  and  university,  and  he 
stands  for  the  spirit  of  discipline  which  that  training 
represents.  A  true  Prussian,  he  would  drill  boys  in  school 
as  soldiers  are  drilled  in  camp,  but  this  dominant  charac- 
teristic does  not  prevent  an  appreciation  of  youthful 
weakness  and  human  sentiment.  His  attitude  towards 
the  candidates  in  his  seminar  is  that  of  the  friendly  but 
frank  German  official  who  is  responsible  for  the  sharp 
correction  of  errors.  He  knows  the  details  of  school 
work  hi  all  classes  of  the  schools  under  his  direction. 
For  many  years  he  has  been  actively  interested  in  the 
various  problems  of  school  organization  and  adminis- 
tration as  well  as  in  the  actual  work  of  the  classroom. 
Highly  esteemed  in  his  own  school  and  community,  and 
prominent  in  the  educational  councils  of  the  state,  he 
stands  among  the  foremost  of  those  scholarly,  capable 
men  who  are  so  efficiently  directing  the  practical  train- 
ing of  future  teachers  in  the  German  higher  schools. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       123 

The  members  of  the  seminar  are  nine  men  who  have 
passed  the  state  examination  (Staatsexameri) .  Five  of 
them  have  also  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy, 
and  part  of  the  others  are  working  towards  it.  Of  these 
men  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  they  are  of  good  pres- 
ence, strong  and  energetic  both  physically  and  mentally, 
courteous  and  agreeable  in  manner.  The  following  facts 
concerning  each  will  enable  the  reader  to  understand 
better  the  personnel  and  the  work  of  the  seminar. 

Numbers  i  and  5,  as  given  in  the  table,  have  performed 
the  required  year  of  military  service. 

Number  2  first  prepared  himself  for  the  work  of  a  prac- 
tical chemist,  but  changed  to  the  profession  of  teaching 
because  it  seemed  to  offer  better  chance  for  promotion. 

Number  3  taught  one  year  in  a  private  school  before 
passing  the  state  examination. 

Numbers  i,  4,  6,  7,  and  8  are  assistants  (Erzieher)  in  the 
boarding  homes  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen. 

Number  9  served  about  twenty  years  as  a  pastor  before 
passing  the  state  examination  for  the  position  of  teacher  in 
the  higher  schools.  Besides  the  two  hours  of  teaching 
which  he  does  in  the  Oberrealschule  of  the  Franckesche 
Stiftungen,  he  teaches  thirty-six  hours  per  week  in  private 
schools  of  the  city.  He  will  be  ready  for  appointment 
at  the  close  of  the  Seminarjahr,  having  been  specially 
excused  by  the  Minister  of  Education  from  serving  the 
usual  Probejahr. 


124        TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


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INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       12$ 

The  pedagogical  studies,  including  psychology  and 
philosophy,  pursued  by  these  candidates  while  they  were 
in  the  university,  are  reported  as  follows.  The  figure 
following  the  subject  indicates  the  number  of  hours  per 
week  during  one  semester :  — 

No.  i.  Introduction  to  the  pedagogical  classics  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  i ;  discussion  of  Herbart's  outline  of 

^ 

pedagogical  lectures,  i ;  discussion  of  Rousseau's  Emile 
and  Locke's  Some  Thoughts  on  Education,  i ;  history  of  the 
Prussian  school  system,  i ;  history  of  pedagogy,  i ;  the 
problem  of  immortality  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  i ; 
Christianity  and  the  theory  of  evolution,  i ;  logic,  4 ; 
psychology,  4 ;  history  of  philosophy  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  2 ;  exercises  in  Plato's  Phcedo,  i . 

No.  2.  History  of  philosophy,  3,  2  semesters ;  psychol- 
ogy* 25  pedagogical  exercises,  i. 

No.  3.  Introduction  to  philosophy,  2  ;  selected  chap- 
ters from  the  history  of  ancient  philosophy,  2  ;  history  of 
philosophy,  4 ;  logic,  4 ;  psychology,  4 ;  introduction  to 
aesthetics,  2  ;  introduction  to  the  pedagogical  classics  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  2  ;  history  of  pedagogy,  2. 

No.  4.    History  of  pedagogy,  i. 

No.  5.  Introduction  to  philosophy,  i ;  logic,  2 ; 
history  of  philosophy,  3,  3  semesters;  psychology,  3; 
history  of  pedagogy,  i ;  'philosophical  exercises,  2,3  semes- 
ters ;  ethics,  2 ;  general  pedagogy,  2 ;  pedagogical  semi- 
nar (Jena),  3;  philosophy  of  religion,  i. 


126   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

No.  6.  History  of  pedagogy,  4 ;  history  of  modern 
pedagogy,  2 ;  history  of  philosophy  to  Kant,  4 ;  history 
of  modern  philosophy,  4 ;  psychology,  4 ;  logic,  4 ;  the 
freedom  of  the  will,  2. 

No.  7.  History  of  philosophy,  5,  2  semesters;  psy- 
chology, 3  ;  Kant  and  his  philosophy,  i ;  logic,  2 ;  in- 
troduction to  philosophy,  ;  history  of  pedagogy,  2 ; 
introduction  to  pedagogical  classics,  2  ;  selected  chapters 
hi  didactics,  2. 

No.  8.  Plato  and  Kant,  2  ;  introduction  to  the  peda- 
gogical classics  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  cen- 
turies, 2 ;  history  of  pedagogy  since  the  Middle  Ages, 
2 ;  introduction  to  the  pedagogical  classics  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  2. 

No.  9.  History  of  philosophy,  6,  2  semesters ;  Kant 
4 ;  Rousseau,  2  ;  psychology,  4 ;  pedagogy,  3, 2  semesters. 

As  representative  of  the  amount  of  university  training 
received  by  these  candidates  in  the  subjects  which  they 
have  prepared  themselves  to  teach,  the  following  lists  of 
lecture  courses  are  given.  The  German  university  stu- 
dent is  absolutely  free  in  the  choice  of  the  lectures  that 
he  attends ;  consequently  he  usually  pursues  those  sub- 
jects in  which  he  is  most  interested,  and  those  which 
may  be  of  future  use.  Roughly  speaking,  the  courses 
named  below  may  be  said  to  constitute  about  three 
fourths  of  the  whole  number  of  courses  attended  by 
these  students  during  their  university  course.  Candidate 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       127 

number  i  represents  the  ancient  languages  and  history, 
number  3  the  modern  languages  and  geography,  and 
number  5  mathematics  and  the  sciences. 

No.  i.  Latin. — Latin  grammar,  4 ;  history  of  Roman 
historiography  and  interpretation  of  the  Annals  of  Taci- 
tus, 4 ;  philological  prose  seminar  (exercises  in  writing 
and  speaking  Latin  and  in  grammatical  repetitions),  2,  2 
semesters ;  Latin  etymology  and  theory  of  words,  i ; 
Catullus,  2  ;  antiquities  of  the  Roman  state,  3  ;  Tacitus's 
Germania,  2 ;  prosody  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  3 ; 
Horace,  2  ;  Cicero's  life  and  works  with  interpretation  of 
the  second  book  of  De  legibus,  3  ;  outlines  of  Latin  syntax, 
3 ;  interpretation  of  Plautus's  Miles  gloriosus,  an  intro- 
duction to  old  Latin  language  and  prosody,  2 ;  Juvenal, 
2 ;  philological  seminar,  interpretation  of  Varro's  De 
lingua  Latina,  Book  V,  2. 

Greek.  —  Interpretation  of  selected  choruses  (Chor- 
gesange)  of  Sophocles  as  an  introduction  to  the  art  form 
of  the  Attic  tragedy,  3 ;  philological  pro-seminar,  inter- 
pretation of  selected  shorter  orations  of  Lysias,  2 ;  his- 
tory of  Greek  poetry,  3  ;  antiquities  of  the  Greek  state,  4 ; 
Aristophanes's  Birds,  4 ;  philological  pro-seminar,  inter- 
pretation of  ^Eschylus's  Prometheus,  2 ;  Thucydides,  4 ; 
introduction  to  Greek  comic  poets,  i ;  Greek  syntax,  3  ; 
Euripides,  life  and  interpretation  of  his  works,  4 ;  Plato's 
Cratylus  as  an  introduction  to  scientific  etymology,  i ; 
Homeric  accidence,  3 ;  Demosthenes's  Oration  against 


128   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Leptines,  2 ;  Plato's  life  and  writings  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Symposium,  4 ;  Greek  grammar,  4 ;  philologi- 
cal seminar,  interpretation  of  Hesiod's  Works  and  Days,  2  ; 
Greek  dialects,  4. 

History.  —  Sources  of  German  history  to  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  4 ;  general  history  in  the  period  of  the  Anti- 
reformation  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1555-1648),  4; 
modern  history  since  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  4 ;  Prussia's 
fall  and  rise  in  the  tune  of  Bonaparte,  i ;  history  of  the 
Roman  imperial  age,  4 ;  Greek  history,  Part  1, 4 ;  history 
of  the  German  constitution,  4 ;  introduction  to  ancient 
history,  2 ;  historical  seminar,  4,  8  semesters. 

History  of  art.  —  Homeric  statuary,  i;  Olympia,  i; 
sculptors  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  i ;  history  of  Greek 
art  in  the  Hellenistic  period,  2. 

No.  3.  English.  —  Modern  English  literature,  4 ;  the 
present-day  English  novel,  2  ;  historical  grammar  of  the 
English  language,  4 ;  modern  English  prosody,  2 ;  exer- 
cises of  the  English  seminar,  2,  7  semesters ;  life  and 
works  of  Chaucer,  3  ;  interpretation  of  Byron's  Childe 
Harold,  2 ;  history  of  Middle  English  literature,  3 ; 
interpretation  of  Beowulf,  2  ;  course  in  phonetics  for  the 
practice  of  English  and  French  pronunciation,  2  ;  history 
of  Old  English  literature,  3  ;  life  and  works  of  Shakespeare, 
3  ;  introduction  to  the  Scottish  dialect,  2  ;  exercises  (speak- 
ing and  writing)  in  Modern  English,  2,  4  semesters ;  pro- 
nunciation and  orthography  of  Modem  English,  2. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       1 29 

French.  —  Phonetics  and  accidence  of  vulgar  Latin,  5  ; 
historical  grammar  of  the  French  language,  5  ;  interpreta- 
tion of  old  French  poetry,  2  ;  outline  of  French  literature 
from  the  beginning  to  the  Revolution,  5  ;  interpretation 
of  Aucassin  et  Nicolette,  2 ;  romance  pro-seminar,  2,  6 
semesters ;  history  of  French  literature  since  the  Revolu- 
tion, 5 ;  exercises  in  speaking  and  writing  the  French 
language,  2,  6  semesters ;  Les  rapports  litter  air  es  entre  la 
France  et  VAllemagne,  2 ;  selected  chapters  from  French 
syntax,  2 ;  Moliere,  —  ;  French  pronunciation  and  its 
development,  4;  French  prosody  and  (popular)  epic 
poetry,  5  ;  Les  grands  classiques  franqais,  2. 

Geography.  —  Distribution  of  land  and  water,  2  ;  Eu- 
rope (except  Central  Europe),  4;  recent  results  in  geog- 
raphy and  ethnology,  i ;  exercises  of  the  geographical 
seminar,  2,  7  semesters;  general  geography,  7;  Northern 
Central  Europe,  2 ;  methodics  of  geography,  and  of 
geographical  instruction,  2  ;  geographical  conference,  2,  3 
semesters ;  history  of  the  development  of  the  earth  and  its 
inhabitants,  2  ;  Australia,  America,  Africa,  4 ;  Darwin- 
ism, especially  applied  to  the  development  of  peoples,  2 ; 
commercial  geography,  2,  2  semesters;  map  making, 
with  practical  exercises,  2 ;  geography  of  Europe,  3 ; 
Asia,  3 ;  Southern  Central  Europe,  2 ;  selected  chapters 
in  anthropography,  2 ;  topographical  and  geographical 
surveys,  with  practical  exercises,  2  ;  German'  colonies,  2. 

History.  —  History  of  the  War  of  Liberation  (1813- 


130       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 


,  3;  history  of  Brandenburg-Prussia,  2  ;  history  of 
the  German  people,  4  ;  history  of  the  Middle  Ages  from 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  4  ;  history  of  England,  2  ; 
history  of  Europe  from  1648,  4. 

No.  5.  Pure  matJiematics.  Differential  calculus,  4; 
integral  calculus,  4;  analytical  geometry,  4;  theory  of 
functions,  4  ;  differential  equations,  4  ;  partial  differential 
equations,  4  ;  projective  geometry,  4  ;  algebra,  4  ;  theory 
of  numbers,  4;  mechanics,  4;  elliptic  functions,  4; 
theory  of  tune  measurement,  2  ;  selected  chapters  in 
analytical  functions,  i  ;  theory  of  quadratic  forms,  2  ; 
division  and  quadrature  of  the  circle,  2  ;  mathematical 
approximation  methods,  2  ;  definite  integrals,  4  ;  cal- 
culation of  variations,  4  ;  infinitesimal  geometry  (theory 
of  surfaces),  4;  numerous  exercises  connected  with 
seminar. 

Applied  mathematics.  —  Descriptive  geometry,  4  ;  pop- 
ular astronomy,  i  ;  history  of  Greek  astronomy,  2  ; 
determination  of  time  and  position  (theory  and  practice), 
4;  measurements  of  degrees  or  angles  (triangulation),  i  ; 
methods  of  calculating  adjustments  (Ausgleichungsrech- 
nung),  2;  graphic  statics,  4;  technical  mechanics,  4; 
dynamics,  4  ;  elasticity  and  strength  of  materials,  4  ; 
exercises  in  surveying,  mechanics,  descriptive  geometry, 
determinations  of  time  and  position,  etc. 

Physics.  —  Experimental  physics,  I  and  II,  5  ;  practi- 
curn  in  physical  institute,  6  ;  theoretical  optics,  4  ;  theory 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS       131 

of  electricity  and  magnetism  (compare  theoretical  me- 
chanics under  mathematics),  4;  electrical  accumula- 
tors (Akumidatoreri),  special  lectures,  i ;  kinetic  theory 
of  gas,  2  ;  meteorology,  4 ;  weather,  light,  and  heat,  i ; 
absorption  and  dispersion  of  light  in  crystals,  i ;  optical 
polarizing  power  (Drehungsvermogen)  in  crystals,  i ; 
mathematical  supplements  of  experimental  physics,  2. 

Chemistry  and  mineralogy.  —  Experimental  chemistry, 
5, 2  semesters ;  practicum  in  chemistry,  15-18, 2  semesters; 
mineralogy,  4  ;  petrography,  4 ;  crystallography,  . 

Unless  excused  for  special  reason  the  unmarried  mem- 
bers of  the  seminar,  including  those  in  the  Probejahr,  are 
expected  to  live  in  the  boarding  homes  of  the  Franckesche 
Stiftungen  and  to  serve  as  assistants  (Erzieher).  Their 
duties  include  the  special  care  of  certain  pupils  and  re- 
sponsibility for  the  general  good  order  of  all  pupils  at  all 
times.  The  needs  of  the  institution  seem  to  make  this 
arrangement  necessary,  and  the  necessity  offers  to  the 
candidates  an  opportunity  to  gain  valuable  experience 
in  caring  for  boys  as  individuals  as  well  as  in  groups. 
This  service  is  peculiar  to  the  seminarium  praceptorum. 

Visiting  the  classes  of  other  teachers  is  an  important 
part  of  the  work  of  the  Seminar jahr,  especially  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year.  The  candidates  may  visit 
one  another's  classes.  They  are  expected  to  visit  the 
classes  of  the  regular  teachers  of  different  subjects,  and 
particularly  those  of  teachers  whose  subjects  are  the  same 


132       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

as  their  own.  Besides  this  individual  visiting,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  seminar,  hi  company  with  the  director,  visit 
twice  per  week  in  some  class  where  arrangements  for  the 
visit  have  previously  been  made.  These  visits  include 
the  Vorschule  and  the  Mittelschule  as  well  as  the  higher 
schools.  On  these  occasions  the  teacher  is  supposed  to 
present  a  pedagogically  correct  lesson  as  far  as  the  circum- 
stances of  the  day  permit.  Sometimes  he  hands  the 
written  outline  of  his  lesson  plan  to  the  director  as  the 
latter  enters  the  room.  Members  of  the  seminar  are  sup- 
posed to  take  notes  of  what  they  see.  Two  members,  a 
referent  and  a  co-referent,  are  expected  to  report  at  length 
at  the  next  meeting  of  the  seminar,  when  the  work  of  the 
hour  is  carefully  criticized.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year 
the  following  outline,  prepared  by  former  director  Frick, 
was  given  to  the  members  of  the  seminar  by  the  director 
as  the  basis  for  criticism  of  classroom  teaching :  — 

POINTS  OF  VIEW  FOR  THE  CRITICISM  OF  TEST 
LESSONS 

I.  Choice  and  arrangement  of  subject  matter. 

1.  Did  the  quantity  of  matter  stand  in  right  relation  to  the 

time? 

2.  Was  the  matter  satisfactorily  sifted  and  organized  and 

correctly  divided  ? 

3.  Was  the  arrangement  clear  and  transparent? 

n.  Manner  of  treatment. 

i.   Was  a  purposeful  and  systematic  sequence  of  instructional 
activities  (Lehrthatigkeiteri)  observed?  namely, 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       133 

a.  Preparation  for  the  new  by  association  with  the  old  and 
known. 

b.  Presentation  or  development  of  the  new. 

c.  Elaboration  (Vertiefung,  Begrundung,  Riickblick,  Zusam- 
menfassung). 

d.  Application  (Einilbung,  Einpragung) . 

2.  Was  the  subject  clearly  presented,  logically  developed, 

systematically  elaborated,  thoroughly  practiced,   and 
firmly  impressed  ? 

3.  What  about  the  formation  and  use  of  questions  (especially 

of  concentration  questions)  and  their  equal  distribution 
among  all  pupils? 

III.  Personality  of  the  teacher. 

What  was  the  carriage  of  the  teacher  ?  Was  he  fresh,  inspir- 
ing, and  lively  in  teaching?  Did  he  govern  the  class  by 
means  of  his  eye  and  the  strength  and  warmth  of  his  voice 
in  teaching?  Was  his  language  correct,  articulate,  dis- 
tinct, succinct  ?  Was  his  reading  a  model  worthy  of  imita- 
tion ?  Was  his  whole  bearing  commendable  ? 

IV.  Discipline. 

Did  the  teacher  know  how  to  keep  the  entire  class  busy 
all  the  time?  Did  he  keep  up  the  attention  and  interest 
of  the  pupils  generally  to  an  equal  degree  ?  Did  he  under- 
stand how  to  refresh  attention  and  interest  at  the  proper 
time  by  purposeful  external  means  (pauses,  having  pupils 
rise,  sit  erect,  speak  in  concert,  and  the  like)  ?  Had  he  eye 
and  ear  for  the  mistakes  and  misdemeanors  of  pupils,  or 
were  there  many  things  which  he  did  not  notice  at  all 
and  others  to  which  he  paid  no  attention  ? 
V.  Total  impression  and  success  of  the  lesson. 

Was  a  distinct  advance  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  noticeable  ? 
In  this  lesson  did  the  teacher  show  distinct  progress,  inde- 
pendent understanding  of  the  hints  or  suggestions  given 
him,  and  careful  observation  of  the  same  ? 


134       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

The  candidates  are  required  to  do  some  teaching  as  part 
of  the  work  of  the  Seminar jahr.  The  number  of  hours  is 
not  specified,  and  there  is  wide  difference  hi  practice.  The 
teaching  done  by  these  candidates  is  indicated  in  the  table. 
They  have  entire  charge  of  the  class,  take  their  turn  in 
the  oversight  of  halls  and  playgrounds,  attend  the  con- 
ferences of  the  faculty,  and  have  all  the  rights  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  regular  teachers  as  far  as  their  relations  to 
pupils  are  concerned ;  but  their  teaching  is  under  constant 
supervision  either  by  the  director  or  by  some  teacher  to 
whose  care  they  have  been  assigned.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  some  of  these  candidates  are  teaching  subjects  in 
which  they  have  not  passed  the  state  examination.  This 
is  occasioned  by  a  scarcity  of  teachers  for  the  subjects  in 
which  they  are  giving  instruction.  According  to  the 
regulations,  the  amount  of  teaching  done  by  candidates  in 
the  Seminarjahr  should  be  small,  but  practically  it  de- 
pends upon  the  number  of  candidates  and  teachers  in  the 
country  at  large.  If  the  number  is  great,  the  number  of 
hours  assigned  to  each  is  proportionately  small.  If  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  teachers,  as  there  has  been  for  some  ten 
years,  the  number  of  hours  assigned  may  nearly  or  quite 
equal  that  of  a  regular  teacher.  In  case  a  candidate  has 
full  work,  that  is,  twenty-four  hours  per  week,  he  is  usually 
given  the  rank  of  assistant  teacher  (wissenschaftlicher 
Hilfslehrer)  and  he  is  paid  eighteen  hundred  marks,  or 
about  $430  per  year.  He  may  be  called  upon  for  rune 


INSTITUTIONS    FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       135 

hours  per  week  without  pay.  For  every  hour  above  this 
number  carried  throughout  the  year  he  receives  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  marks,  or  $26.40.  Before  he  is  admitted 
to  the  rank  of  candidate,  every  man  must  certify  in  writing 
that  he  has  sufficient  means  for  his  support  during  the 
Seminarjahr  and  Probejahr.  Most  candidates  receive 
from  the  state  during  the  Seminarjahr  a  stipendium  of 
about  $125,  in  addition  to  the  amount  received  for  teach- 
ing above  nine  hours  per  week ;  but  when  a  candidate  is 
paid  as  an  assistant,  he  does  not  receive  the  stipendium 
given  to  those  who  teach  a  smaller  number  of  hours. 

Probestunden,  or  model  lessons,  are  required  of  the 
candidates,  and  they  are  attended  by  the  director  and  the 
other  members  of  the  seminar.  The  candidate  is  expected 
to  give  to  the  director  before  the  hour  a  written  outline 
of  the  work  he  proposes  to  accomplish.  During  such 
lessons  the  director  sometimes  corrects  a  false  answer, 
insists  upon  sharper  work  by  some  pupil,  or  asks  a  ques- 
tion which  discloses  a  weakness  in  plan  or  procedure,  but 
the  candidate  is  left  free  to  work  out  his  own  plan.  The 
work  of  the  hour  is  afterwards  criticized  in  the  seminar 
meeting.  Both  the  Probestunde  and  the  hour  of  criticism 
are  a  severe  strain  upon  the  candidate  most  concerned. 

All  the  work  of  the  seminar  is  brought  to  a  focus  in  the 
weekly  meeting.  The  session,  lasting  about  an  hour  and  a 
half,  is  held  in  a  comfortable  room,  where  the  director  and 
the  members  sit  round  a  table.  According  to  the 


136   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

German  custom  the  candidates  rise  as  the  director  enters 
the  room,  and  remain  standing  until  he  is  seated.  The 
work  of  the  session  begins  without  further  ceremony.  It 
is  likely  to  proceed  in  some  such  order  as  the  following : 

1.  Reading  of  minutes  of  previous  meeting. 

2.  Introductory  remarks  or  announcements  by  the 
director  and  questions  by  the  members. 

3.  Criticism  of  the  teaching  of  candidates  observed  by 
the  director  since  the  previous  meeting. 

4.  Criticism  of  model  lessons  or  of  Probestunden. 

5.  Reports  upon  assigned  reading. 

Minutes  of  each  meeting  are  recorded,  different 
members  of  the  seminar  serving  in  turn  as  secretary.  In 
some  seminars  the  minutes  contain  an  exhaustive  account 
of  the  proceedings.  The  character  of  those  kept  in  this 
seminar  is  indicated  by  the  following  samples :  — 

"Minutes  of  the  opening  meeting  of  the  seminarium  praceptorum, 
April  14,  1909.  —  Director  Fries  opened  the  seminarium  pracep- 
torum  at  10  A.M.,  April  14,  1909,  and  with  handshake  and  signature 
pledged  the  candidates  to  the  observance  of  their  duties  both 
inside  and  outside  of  the  institution. 

"  Wednesday  was  fixed  as  session  day,  the  sessions  to  begin  at 
ii. 10  A.M.  in  April  and  10.10  A.M.  after  May  i. 

"  Friday  and  Saturday  were  fixed  as  the  days  for  visiting  classes. 

"  The  director  led  in  the  discussion  of  the  position  and  spirit  of 
the  teacher  and  the  order  of  educational  activities. 

"As  a  guide  for  class  instruction  Director  Fries  distributed  Frick's 
outline,  Points  of  view  for  the  criticism  of  test  lessons,  and  the  first  point, 
"The  choice  and  arrangement  of  subject  matter,'  was  discussed. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING    OF    TEACHERS       137 

"  Director  Fries  then  gave  a  short  survey  of  the  history  of  the 
establishment  of  seminars,  with  special  reference  to  the  seminar 
of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen. 

"For  the  work  of  the  next  meeting  the  consideration  of  Frick's 
point  of  view  was  assigned. 

Fries.  Faltin. 

"  May  19, 1909.  — All  members  present  with  Director  Fries  pre- 
siding. 

"  Director  Fries  discussed  the  exercise  books  in  foreign  languages 
submitted  to  him  by  Dr.  R.,  Mr.  J.,  and  Mr.  F.,  and  advised  the 
candidates  to  adopt  the  system  of  marking  mistakes  that  is  in  use 
in  the  school  concerned. 

"  Director  Fries  criticized  the  lessons  of  Dr.  Re.,  Dr.  Ro.,  Mr.  W. 

> 

and  Mr.  J. 

"  Dr.  S.  made  a  report  on  the  treatment  of  Goethe's  Mignon  in 
the  second  class  of  the  girls'  Mittelschule.  In  the  discussion  following 
this  report  Director  Fries  recommended  that  the  statement  of  the 
objective  point  be  placed  at  the  end  rather  than  at  the  beginning 
of  the  lesson. 

"Mr.  W.  discussed  the  geography  lesson  concerning  German 
Southwest  Africa  in  the  first  class  of  the  same  school. 

"  The  visiting  hours  of  the  next  three  weeks  must  fail  on  account 
of  the  school  excursion  of  the  Latina,  the  Whitsuntide  holidays, 
and  the  necessary  absence  of  the  director. 

"  The  last  part  of  the  session  was  taken  up  with  the  report  by 
Dr.  S.  on  Matthias's  Praktischc  Padagogik,  section  17, 'Language, 
spirit,  manner,  and  humor  hi  instruction';  section  18,  'The 
lecture';  section  19,  'The  story  and  the  art  of  story-telling.' 
In  connection  with  this  report  Director  Fries  recommended  Frick's 
essay,  The  art  of  story-letting. 

"  Dr.  R.  and  Mr.  H.  are  to  report  at  the  next  meeting  on  Mat- 
thias's Praktiscfie  Padagogik,  section  6,  'The  value  of  personality,' 
and  section  7,  'The  ideals  and  the  realities  of  the  profession.'  The 
next  assignment  for  reading  is  0.  Willmann's  Didaktik  als  Bildungs- 


138       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

lehre,  II,  section  80,  'Articulation  of  the  lesson  content.'    Dr.  G. 
will  serve  as  referent  and  Mr.  H.  as  co-referent. 

Fries.  Faltin. 

"June  16,  1909.    All  present. 

"  Following  a  statement  by  Dr.  R.  concerning  new  books  added 
to  the  library,  Director  Fries  called  attention  especially  to  Schap- 
per's  Die  Phantasie  and  to  Lampe's  Methode  des  geographischen 
Unterrichts. 

"  Director  Fries  criticized  a  lesson  in  Latin  grammar  given  by 
Mr.  F. 

"A  short  report  was  given  by  Dr.  R.  concerning  the  lesson  in 
mathematics  conducted  by  Professor  S.  in  the  fourth  class  of  the 
Oberrealschule. 

"  A  detailed  discussion  followed  concerning  a  test  lesson  of  Dr.  S., 
the  discussion  consisting  of  self-criticism,  general  criticism,  reply  of 
Dr.  S.,  and  final  criticism  given  by  the  Director. 

"The  next  test  lesson  will  be  given  on  Saturday  by  Mr.  F.,  sub- 
ject, 'Latin  grammar,  in  the  fourth  class  of  the  Latino.'  Mr.  J. 
is  named  as  referent. 

"Mr.  F.  reported  on  section  78  of  Willmann's  Didaktik,  'The 
psychological  moment.'  In  the  discussion  following  this  report 
Director  Fries  especially  called  attention  to  Lange's  monograph, 
Apperception,  and  also  to  Willmann's  book,  Aristoteles,  a  new  work 
in  the  series,  Die  grossen  Erzieher,  and  to  R.  Lehmann's  Uber  den 
deutschen  Unterricht. 

"The  next  report  will  be  upon  Vortrdge  uber  die  Hebung  der 
geistigen  Tdtigkeit  durch  den  Unterricht.  The  first  lecture  will  be 
discussed  by  Dr.  S.,  co-referent  Dr.  R. ;  the  fourth  lecture  by  Mr.  W., 
co-referent  Dr.  G. 

"Finally  Director  Fries  called  attention  to  the  importance  of 
pupils'  reports  and  to  the  responsibility  of  those  who  make  them ; 
and  he  assigned  for  the  next  lesson  a  consideration  of  the  two  topics, 
'Pedagogical  tact '  and  'The  making  of  pupils'  reports.' " 
Fries.  Roegner. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       139 

The  general  remarks  of  the  director  may  have  to  do 
with  new  magazines  or  books,  some  new  order  or  regula- 
tion, a  matter  of  local  school  organization,  plans  for  visi- 
tation, or  some  other  topic  of  current  interest. 

The  director  is  likely  to  drop  into  the  class  of  a  candi- 
date at  any  time.  He  then  makes  note  of  what  he  sees 
and  reports  upon  it  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  seminar. 
His  criticisms  are  direct  and  practical  and  sometimes 
very  severe.  They  concern  such  matters  as  the  repe- 
tition of  the  pupil's  answer  by  the  teacher;  loud,  dis- 
tinct speaking  by  both  teacher  and  pupil ;  attention  ; 
discipline;  the  need  of  more  force  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher ;  the  value  of  a  cordial  attitude  of  the  teacher 
towards  the  pupil ;  the  difference  between  mistakes  in 
form  and  chance  mistakes  in  writing  a  word  in  language 
work ;  the  need  of  uniformity  in  the  manner  of  marking 
mistakes  by  all  teachers  of  any  one  school;  the  im- 
portance of  rousing  the  imagination  in  some  particular 
instance ;  methods  of  questioning  pupils ;  the  necessity  of 
slow,  accurate  dictation,  given  but  once ;  the  necessity 
of  accuracy  in  information  given  by  the  teacher  supple- 
mentary to  that  found  in  the  textbook ;  proper  division 
of  work  through  the  semester ;  careful  planning  of  each 
day's  lesson  with  a  view  to  variety;  specific  questions 
concerning  method  in  the  teaching  of  particular  subjects. 

Criticism  of  model  lessons  given  by  regular  teachers  is 
first  presented  by  the  referent  appointed  to  report  upon  it. 


140   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

He  reviews  the  work  of  the  hour,  and  points  out  defects 
and  merits  as  they  appear  to  him.  The  co-referent  is 
asked  to  supplement  this  report,  and  then  all  the  mem- 
bers have  an  opportunity  to  discuss  the  lesson  and  the 
points  at  issue.  The  discussion  is  usually  closed  by  the 
director.  The  teacher  is  not  present  at  these  times. 

Criticism  of  Probestunden,  or  model  lessons,  given  by 
the  candidates,  is  searching.  The  candidate  who  gave 
the  lesson  opens  the  discussion  with  a  statement  of  his 
plan  and  a  critical  estimate  of  his  own  effort.  This  criti- 
cism is  followed  by  that  of  the  referent,  co-referent,  and 
other  members.  All  are  unsparing.  One  sometimes 
wonders  whether  they  are  meant  to  be  as  sharp  as  they 
sound  to  American  ears.  The  candidate  criticized  has  the 
right  to  reply  at  any  time,  to  explain  a  situation,  or  to 
give  his  reasons  for  pursuing  or  attempting  a  certain  plan. 
The  director  closes  the  discussion,  emphasizing  points 
stated  by  others  or  presenting  new  ones  as  he  may  choose. 

The  theory  of  pedagogy  receives  a  fair  share  of  con- 
sideration. At  almost  every  meeting  of  the  seminar  an 
assignment  of  literature  is  made,  to  be  reported  upon  at 
the  next  meeting.  For  this  purpose  a  referent  and  a 
co-referent  are  named ;  the  former  to  make  the  report,  the 
latter  to  look  out  for  omissions  or  misinterpretations. 
These  reports  are  not  written  in  full,  but  are  made  off- 
hand from  notes  taken  in  the  reading.  There  is  then  gen- 
eral discussion  of  the  subject  matter  under  the  leadership 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       141 

of  the  director.  The  assignment  for  reading  is  not  large, 
perhaps  covering  fifteen  pages  as  an  average.  A  certain 
fundamental  knowledge  of  psychology  and  the  history 
of  pedagogy,  especially  of  modern  pedagogical  theories,  is 
assumed,  and  the  material  is  taken  almost  entirely  from 
the  field  of  practical  pedogogy.  The  principal  works 
read  were  Praktische  Pddagogik,  by  A.  Matthias ;  Die 
allgemeinen  Bestimmungen  fur  Volksschulen,  byForster; 
Didaktik  als  Bildungslehre  and  Padagogische  Vortrdge  tiber 
die  Hebung  der  geistigen  Tatigkeit,  by  Otto  Willmann. 
Reference  was  also  made  to  Handbuch  der  praktischen 
Pddagogik,  by  H.  Schiller;  to  Zur  Behandlung  der 
Sagengeschichte,  by  Frick;  to  Ideate  und  Proteste,  by 
Schrader ;  to  If  her  den  deutschen  Unterrickt,  by  Lehmann; 
to  several  monographs,  and  to  various  articles  in  the 
educational  magazines.  Representative  topics  discussed 
were :  the  personality  of  the  teacher  in  its  relation  to 
method ;  the  art  of  questioning  and  the  different  kinds 
of  questions ;  the  principle  of  apperception  ;  the  Herbar- 
tian  steps  in  teaching ;  pedagogical  tact ;  interest ;  asso- 
ciation between  parents  and  teachers;  effort  or  attain- 
ment as  a  basis  for  pupils'  reports ;  correlation  of  subject 
matter ;  Ziller's  recapitulation  theory ;  selected  topics  in 
the  history  of  modern  pedagogy. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  Seminarjahr  a  topic  is  as- 
signed to  each  member  of  the  seminar,  upon  which  he  is 
to  write  an  essay  for  presentation  to  the  director  near  the 


142   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

close  of  the  year.  The  candidates  are  asked  to  suggest 
subjects  in  which  they  are  interested,  and,  if  they  are  suit- 
able, personal  preferences  are  regarded  in  the  assignment. 
The  subjects  for  these  essays  are  usually  chosen  from  the 
field  of  practical  pedagogy,  and  the  papers  are  judged  on 
the  basis  of  individual  independence  of  thought  and 
maturity  of  judgment  concerning  the  practical  work  of  the 
school.  Pure  theory  is  to  be  avoided.  This  year's  can- 
didates will  choose  their  subjects  from  the  following  list 
submitted  by  the  director :  — 

Significance  of  the  type  in  religious  and  historical 
instruction. 

Apperception  in  instruction  in  the  higher  schools. 

Pronunciation,  reading,  the  lecture. 

Memorizing  hi  mathematical  instruction. 

How  are  lessons  in  poetry  to  be  treated  in  order  that  the 
imagination  and  the  feelings  may  be  aroused  ? 

Classroom  instruction  and  home  work  in  their  mutual 
relations. 

The  use  of  praise  and  blame  in  instruction. 

Different  kinds  of  concentration. 

The  method  of  grouping  in  reviews. 

What  is  meant  by  educative  instruction  and  how  is  it 
attained  ? 

Historical  and  geographical  instruction  of  the  middle 
classes  in  their  mutual  relations. 

The  use  of  drawing  in  different  departments. 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       143 

Stimulation  and  cultivation  of  the  sense  of  honor. 

Problems  in  the  method  of  instruction  in  arithmetic. 

Compulsion  and  freedom  in  instruction  in  the  higher 
schools. 

Relation  of  natural  science  instruction  to  other  sub- 
jects. 

How  stimulate  self-activity  in  pupils  in  the  lower 
classes  ? 

What  points  in  the  propositions  for  reform  made  by 
Perthes  are  to  be  applied  in  instruction  in  Lathi  ? 

The  library  is  an  important  factor  in  the  work  of  the 
seminar.  In  Halle,  the  university  library  is  available  for 
the  use  of  candidates.  In  addition  to  this,  and  of  more 
general  use,  is  the  library  belonging  to  the  seminar  itself. 
This  is  not  large,  but  it  is  well  selected  and  very  valuable 
for  the  purpose  which  it  is  designed  to  serve.  It  is  com- 
posed of  sample  schoolbooks,  monographs,  and  books  of 
general  pedagogy,  the  history  of  pedagogy,  psychology, 
school  systems,  methods  of  teaching  particular  subjects 
and  special  educational  topics.  Several  of  the  best  edu- 
cational journals,  both  German  and  foreign,  are  at  hand. 
The  custodian  is  chosen  from  among  the  candidates,  and 
the  members  of  the  seminar  have  ready  access  to  books 
and  magazines. 

Other  Modern  Seminars.  —  The  work  done  in  the 
gymnasial  seminar  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  may  be 
taken  as  typical  of  the  best  that  is  done  in  the  higher 


144   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

school  seminars  of  Germany.  Reports  from  other  semi- 
nars indicate  that  differences  in  procedure  are  those 
due  to  differences  in  the  personality  and  training  of  the 
directors,  and  in  local  conditions  and  facilities.  A  few 
directors  admit  the  purely  academic  discussion  of  subject 
matter,  but  this  policy  has  a  small  following.  Some  em- 
phasize more  the  practical,  others  the  theoretical  side  of 
pedagogical  study.  The  spirit  of  the  work  as  a  whole 
depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  director.  In  some  cases 
the  letter  of  the  law  is  closely  followed  and  candidates  are 
admitted  to  teaching  only  after  the  first  quarter,  and  then 
with  a  small  number  of  hours.  In  other  cases  they  are 
given  from  eight  to  twelve  hours  per  week  from  the  begin- 
ning. In  still  other  instances  they  are  given  the  full 
number  of  hours,  twenty-four  per  week,  at  once.  They 
are  then  practically  independent  from  the  start,  for  this 
state  of  affairs  indicates  a  scarcity  of  teachers  in  the 
school,  and  no  one  has  time  to  supervise  their  work  care- 
fully. Candidates  sometimes  complain  because  they  are 
required  to  teach  two  years  on  probation,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  receive  little  assistance  from  their  superi- 
ors. This  rare  condition,  however,  is  due  to  unfortunate 
circumstances,  and  it  is  regretted  by  every  one. 

THE  PROBEJABR 

The  Probejahr  has  a  history  of  its  own,  as  shown  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  and  it  must  be  ranked  as  a  separate 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS       145 

institution  although  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
Seminar jahr.  Before  the  establishment  of  the  latter  in 
1890,  it  was  scarcely  more  than  a  year  of  trial  service  with 
little  supervisory  assistance.  Since  the  founding  of  the 
Seminarjahr,  it  remains  a  year  of  trial  service,  but  the 
candidate  receives  more  systematic  attention  from  the 
school  director  or  his  representative,  and  he  is  required  to 
submit  a  written  report  in  which  he  criticizes  his  year's 
work.  The  candidate  is  under  the  immediate  control  of 
the  director,  who  reports  to  the  provincial  school  board 
concerning  the  character  of  his  work.  The  Probejahr  is 
usually  spent  in  a  school  to  which  no  seminar  is  attached. 
In  the  Latina  (Gymnasium)  and  Oberrealschule  of  the 
Franckesche  Stiftungen  there  were,  however,  during  the 
writer's  sojourn  there,  three  candidates  serving  their 
Probejahr.  The  training  of  these  men  and  the  teaching 
actually  done  by  them  is  briefly  indicated  as  follows: 
Number  i  passed  his  Seminarjahr  in  another  seminar. 
He  was  teaching  in  the  Oberrealschule,  mathematics  sixteen 
hours,  physics  two,  and  chemistry  four,  a  total  of  twenty- 
two  hours;  and  for  this  service  he  received  a  salary  of  $430. 
Number  2  passed  his  Seminarjahr  in  another  seminar. 
His  principal  subjects  are  Greek,  Latin,  and  history.  He 
was  teaching  in  the  Latina:  Greek,  six  hours;  Latin,  eight; 
history,  two;  German,  five;  religion,  two ;  geography,  one; 
a  total  of  twenty-four' hours.  He  had  the  rank  of  scien- 
tific assistant  and  served  as  assistant  (Erzieher)  in  one 

L 


146   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

of  the  boarding  homes.  For  this  service  he  received 
a  salary  of  $430  per  year.  His  Probejahr  was  interrupted 
by  the  year  of  military  service  beginning  October,  1909. 
Number  3,  doctor  of  philosophy,  passed  his  Seminar jahr 
in  the  seminarium  pr&ceptorum,  and  was  serving  his 
Probejahr  in  the  Latina.  He  taught  mathematics  eight 
hours  and  natural  science  six  hours,  receiving  pay  for 
five  hours.  He  was  also  assistant  (Erzieher)  in  a  board- 
ing home.  His  Probejahr  was  also  interrupted  by  the 
year  of  military  service,  but  he  expected  to  return  to  the 
school  in  October,  1910,  for  the  second  semester. 

The  candidate  in  the  Probejahr  is  not  required  to  attend 
the  meetings  of  the  seminar  or  to  do  any  particular  read- 
ing, although  he  is  supposed  to  make  diligent  use  of  his 
spare  time  for  the  latter  purpose.  His  teaching  receives 
less  supervision  than  that  of  the  candidate  in  the  Seminar- 
jahr,  but  he  is  still  officially  under  the  care  of  the  director 
of  the  school.  At  the  close  of  the  year  he  is  expected  to 
make  a  report  to  the  director  concerning  his  work.  This 
report  may  also  contain  a  statement  of  his  experience  and 
impressions  pedagogically  considered.  Should  the  direc- 
tor deem  his  work  unsatisfactory,  he  so  reports  to  his 
superior  authority,  the  provincial  school  board  {Pro- 
vincial Schulkollegium) .  Towards  the  close  of  the  year 
a  special  school  inspector  also  visits  the  classes  of  the 
candidate  and  reports  to  the  school  board.  Should  the 
decision  of  the  Schulkollegium,  the  final  authority,  be 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS       147 

against  him,  the  candidate  is  either  required  to  serve 
a  second  Probejahr  (or  at  least  a  semester)  in  another 
school,  or  he  is  finally  refused  a  certificate  as  teacher  in 
the  higher  schools.  If  the  reports  of  the  director  and 
inspector  are  favorable,  he  will  be  certificated  by  state 
authority  as  higher  school  teacher  (Oberlehrer) ,  and  he 
will  then  be  ready  for  permanent  appointment.  A  few 
years  ago  such  persons  had  to  wait  from  two  to  eight 
years  for  positions ;  but,  as  teachers  for  the  higher  schools 
are  now  scarce  in  Germany,  the  new  teacher  is  likely  to  be 
appointed  at  once. 


CHAPTER  IV 
OPINION  AND  PRACTICE 

A  CENTURY  of  experience  since  the  Prussian  Edict  of 
1 8 10  has  not  served  to  bring  entire  unanimity  of  either 
opinion  or  practice  in  all  points  connected  with  the  train- 
ing of  teachers  for  the  higher  schools  of  Germany.  A  few 
things  have  been  settled  and  universally  accepted.  The 
candidate  must  have  completed  his  triennium  at  the  uni- 
versity ;  he  must  pass  a  state  examination  in  certain  sub- 
jects in  which  every  teacher  should  be  reasonably  profi- 
cient, and  in  certain  other  subjects,  of  his  own  choosing, 
which  he  desires  to  teach ;  and  he  must  spend  at  least 
one  year  teaching  on  trial  before  he  is  officially  admitted 
to  the  ranks  of  the  professional  teacher.  Other  points, 
however,  remain  somewhat  unsettled,  and,  where  they  are 
involved,  there  is  difference  of  practice.  There  is  not  yet 
entire  agreement  concerning  the  study  of  education  as  a 
university  subject ;  concerning  the  value  of  the  university 
pedagogical  seminar  as  a  means  of  training  teachers  for 
the  higher  schools ;  concerning  the  efficiency  of  the  gym- 
nasial  seminar  for  the  same  purpose ;  and  concerning  the 
period  of  time  that  is  necessary  for  the  practical  training. 

148 


OPINION  AND   PRACTICE  149 

A  brief  statement  concerning  opinion  and  practice  with 
reference  to  these  points  follows. 

The  Study  of  Education  occupies  a  somewhat  uncertain 
position  in  German  universities.  It  has  not  yet  com- 
mended itself  everywhere  as  worthy  of  recognition  in  a 
separate  department.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  and 
surprising  illustration  of  this  fact  is  found  in  the  decision, 
in  1908,  of  the  universities  of  Munich,  Wiirzburg,  and 
Erlangen  not  to  establish  chairs  of  education  or  practice 
schools.  The  reasons  for  the  decision  given  by  the  first 
two  universities  named  are  as  follows :  — 

"i.  Pedagogy  as  an  isolated  science  is  able  to  produce  no 
creative,  scientific  work. 

"2,  Pedagogy  as  universal  didactic  presupposes  in  its  repre- 
sentative universal  wisdom.  Since  such  a  thing  does  not  exist, 
an  entire  pedagogical  faculty  must  be  required  for  each  university. 
Only  under  this  presupposition  does  a  special  didactic  of  each  sub- 
ject have  value. 

"3.  An  introduction  into  the  psychological  principles  of  peda- 
gogy can  be  given  only  by  a  representative  of  systematic  philos- 
ophy who  is  particularly  familiar  with  the  methods  of  experimen- 
tal psychology. 

"4.  For  the  pedagogical  training  of  theological  students  exist- 
ing institutions  are  sufficient. 

"5.  The  practical  training  of  future  teachers  for  the  middle 
schools  (Oberlehrer)  belongs  to  the  pedagogical-didactical  seminars 
of  the  middle  schools  (Gymnasien,  etc.),  that  of  the  teachers  for 
the  Volksschulen  to  the  teachers'  seminars  (Lehrer seminar e) ;  the 
university  has  for  its  purpose  the  advancement  of  the  scientific  and 
purely  cultural  training  of  students. 


150   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

"6.  The  union  of  practice  schools  with  the  universities  is 
opposed  not  only  by  considerations  of  principle,  but  by  great 
practical  difficulties  as  regards  the  personnel  of  teachers,  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  and  local  relations."  ' 

The  university  of  Erlangen  voted  against  the  practice 
school,  but  recommended  the  appointment  of  a  new  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  who  should  give  lectures  on  pedagogy. 

In  those  universities  in  which  the  study  of  education  in 
some  form  has  already  been  admitted,  there  remains 
considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  work  and 
how  much  can  be  profitably  offered.  Many  who  believe 
that  the  university  should  present  the  theoretical  side  of 
pedagogical  training  [are  opposed  to  the  practical  semi- 
nar or  practice  school,  as  a  feature  of  university  work. 
There  are  relatively  few  chairs  of  pedagogy.  The  courses 
hi  education  are  listed  under  philosophy  in  the  official 
announcements,  and  most  of  them  are  given  by  professors 
of  philosophy  and  psychology,  who  announce  courses  in 
education  hi  alternate  semesters  or  years. 

The  courses  in  education  offered  in  the  universities  of 
Germany  from  Easter,  1907,  to  Easter,  1910  are  indicated 
in  the  following  list.  The  material  for  the  first  four  semes- 
ters was  collected  by  Mr.  W.  Donath,  a  student  in  the 
university  of  Jena,  and  it  appeared  in  the  magazine,  Aus 
dem  Padagogischen  Universitdts-Seminar  zu  Jena,  edited 
by  Professor  William  Rein.  The  writer  is  under  obliga- 

1  Aus  dem  Padagogischen  Universitats-Seminar  zu  Jena,  Heft  XIII,  3. 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  151 

tions  to  both  Mr.  Donath  and  Professor  Rein  for  the  privi- 
lege of  using  this  material.  The  data  for  the  last  two 
semesters  was  taken  from  the  official  lecture  announce- 
ments issued  by  the  different  universities. 

LIST  OF  COURSES  ' 

BERLIN 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Adi  (d) :  Introduction  to  psych,  (a) 
Ethics.    Riehl:  Ethics  I  &  II  (i) 

Simmel  (a.p.) :  Ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Milnch:    Ped.  theories  from  Schleiermacher  to 

the  present  (2) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Pedagogy.    Paulsen:  Ped.  and  didactics  (4) 

Munch:  The  educational  office  (2) ;  Ped. 

conference  * 

§8  '08  Psychology.    Paulsen:  Psych,  the  foundation  of  the  spir- 
itual sciences  (4) 

Simmel  (a.p.) :  Outlines  of  psych.  (2) 
Stumpf:  Psych,  institute  * 

Ethics.    Misch  (d) :  The  principal  problems  of  philosophy 
with  special   reference  to  individual  and   social 
ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.   Munch :  Theory  and  art  of  language  instruction  (2) 

1  The  rank  of  the  lecturer  has  been  indicated  as  far  as  it  was  pos- 
sible to  determine  it  from  the  announcement.  If  there  are  no  letters 
after  his  name,  he  may  be  assumed  to  be  a  full  professor  (ordentticher 
Professor) ;  the  letters  (a.p.)  indicate  the  rank  of  associate  or  assistant 
professor  (ausserordentlicher  Professor) ;  the  letter  (d)  indicates  private 
lecturer  (privat  Dozent).  SS  '07  indicates  summer  semester,  1907 ;  WS 
'oy-'oS,  winter  semester,  1907-1908.  Courses  marked  with  an  asterisk 
(*)  are  supposed  to  have  been  offered  in  each  of  the  six  semesters. 

Figures  in  parenthesis  following  the  courses  indicate  the  number  of 
hours  per  week  devoted  to  the  work. 


152       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

WS  'o8-'og  Psychology.     Stumpf:  Psych,  with  demonstrations  (4) 
Ethics.    Simmel  (a.p.) :  Ethics  and  problems  in  social  philos- 
ophy (2) 

Pedagogy.    Munch:  Ped.  theory  (2);    Scientific  ped.  exer- 
cises (l)         gjj 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Simmel  (a.p.) :  General  psych.  (2) 

Stumpf:  Theoretical  exercises  in  psych,  in- 
stitute (i) ;  Experimental  exercises  in 
psych,  institute  (2) 

Vierkandt  (d) :  The    soul    life   of    primeval 
races  (3) ;  Exercises  in  race  psych.  (1%) 
Ethics.    Simmel  (a.p.) :  Exercises  in  moral  science 
Pedagogy.    Munch:  Ped.  theories  from  Plato  to  Rousseau  (2) ; 

'  Scientific  ped.  exercises  (i) 

WS  '09-' i  o  Psychology.    Stumpf:  Psych,    with    demonstrations 

(4) ;  Theoretical  exercises  in  psych, 
institute  (i) 

Stumpf  and  Rupp  (d) :    Psych,  insti- 
tute (5) 

Dessoir  (a.p.) :  General  psych.  (2) 
Rupp  (d) :  Experimental    exercises    in 

psych,  institute  (4) 
Frischeisen-Kohler     (d) :     The     psych. 

foundations  of  education  (i) 
Ethics.     Vierkandt  (d) :  Ethics  (2) 

Simmel  (a.p.) :  Kant's  ethics  (i) 

Groethuysen  (d) :  Problems  of  modern  culture  (2) ; 

The  law  of  nature  and  the  historical  school  (i) 
Pedagogy.    Munch:  The  theory  of  instruction  (2) :  Scientific 

ped.  exercises  (2) 

Rupp  (d) :  Discussion  of  exper.  ped.  in  connec- 
tion with  lectures  (i) 


OPINION    AND   PRACTICE  153 

BONN 
SS  '07  Psychology.    Erdmann  :  Psych.  (4) 

Herbertz  (d) :  Experimental  psych,  of  sight 

perception,  especially  in  reading  (i) 
Pedagogy.     Wentscher  (a.p.) :  Ped.  (2) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Psychology.    Dyrof:  Psych.  (4) 

Becker  (d) :  Physiological    psych,    (i) ; 

Feeling  and  will  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Dyroff:  History  of  ped.  (3) 

J tiger:  Gymnasial  ped.    IE  (2) 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Erdmann:  Psych.  (4) 

Ethics.    Becker  (d) :  Principal  problems  in  ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Dyrojf:  Seminar  in  Herbart 
WS  'oS-'og  Psychology.    Dyro/:  Psych.  (4) 

Wentscher  (a.p.) :  General  psych.  (4) 
Erdmann:    Exercises   in  the  psych,  of 

speech 

Pedagogy.    Erdmann:  History  of  ped.  (3) 
J&ger:  Gymnasial  ped.  II  (2) 

SS '09  Psychology.    Erdmann:  Psych.  (4):    Exper.  psych,  exer- 
cises in  reading  (i) 
Verweyen  (d) :    Exercises  in  the  psych,  of 

thinking  (i) 

Pedagogy.    Wentscher  (a.p.) :  Ped.  (2) 
WS  'oo-'io  Psychology.    Dyrof:  Psych.  (4) 

Becker  (d) :  The  psych,  of  will  (i) 
Kiilpe:  Psych,  conference  (2);   Exper. 

psych.  (6) 
Ethics.    Hammacher  (d) :  Exercises  hi  Compte's  sociology  (i) 

BRESLAU 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Stern  (d) :  Child  psych,  and  pedagogy  (3) 
WS  'o7-'o8  Psychology.    Baumgartner:  Psychology  (4) 
Stern  (d) :  Psychology  (4) 


154   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

SS  '08  Psychology.    Stern  (d) :  Applied  psychology  (i) 
Ethics.    Stern  (d) :  Introduction  to  ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Stern  (d) :  History  of  ped.  to  the  present  (2) 
WS  'oS-'og  Psychology.    Stern  (a.p.) :    Psych.  (4) ;   Exercises  in 

child  psych,  and  exper.  ped. 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Baumgartner :  Psychology  (4) 

Stern  (a.p.) :    Psych,  of  adolescence  and  its 
application  to  pedagogy  (2) ;  Psych,  semi- 
nar (2) 
Ethics.    Kabitz  (d) :    Fundamental  questions  of  ethics  (2) ; 

Exercises  in  Kant's  ethical  writings  (iJ/%) 

WS  'OQ-'IO  Psychology.    Stern  (a.p.) :  Psychology  (4) ;   Exercises 

in  the  psych,  of  adolescence  in  psych, 
seminar  (ij^) 

Pedagogy.    Kabitz  (d) :  History  of  pedagogy  in  modern  times 
(2) ;    Exercises  in  theoretical  pedagogy  (ij^) 

ERLANGEN 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Hensel:   Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Leser  (d) :  Prominent  educators  of  modern  times 

and  their  phil.  and  ped.  views  (2) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Pedagogy.    Hensel:  Fichte  (i) 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Leser  (d) :  Psychology  (4) 
Ethics.    Hensel:  Ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Leser  (d) :  Pestalozzi  and  Herbart  (2) 
WS  'o8-'oo  Pedagogy.    Leser  (d) :  Plato  (2) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Hensel :  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Leser  (d) :  Views  of  life  of  great  educators  of 

modern  times  (2) 

WS  'oo-'io  Pedagogy.    Leser  (a.p.) :    Pestalozzi  and  Herbart,  an 
in  trod,  to  the  problems  of  ped.  (2) 


OPINION   AND    PRACTICE  155 

FREIBURG 

SS  '07  Psychology.     Uebinger:  Psychology  (4) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Psychology.     Cohn  (a.p.) :  Psychology  (4) 
Rickert:  Psych,  laboratory* 
Ethics.    Rickert:  Ethics  as  social  philosophy  (i) 
SS  '08  Psychology.     Uebinger:  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Cohn:  Psych,  pedagogy  (2) 
WS  'o8-'op  Psychology.     Cohn:  Psychology  (4) 

Uebinger:  The  phil.  letters  of  J.  E.  Erd- 

mann  (i) 

Pedagogy.    Cohn:  The  ends  of  education  and  instruction  (2) 
SS  '09  Psychology.     Uebinger :  Psychology  (4) 

Bumke  (d) :  Physiological  psych,  (i) 
Cohn  (a.p.) :  Psych,  essays,  by  appointment 
Pedagogy.     Uebinger:  History  of  pedagogy  (2) 
WS  'op-'io  Psychology.    Bumke  (d) :  Physiological  psych,  (i) 

Cohn  (a.p.) :    Psychology,  by  appoint- 
ment 
Pedagogy.    Cohn  (a.p.) :   The  higher  school  systems  of  the 

present  (2) 
Supple  (d) :  School  hygiene  (i) 

GIESSEN 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Groos:  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Siebeck:    Principles  of  didactics  and  theory  of 

method  in  instruction  (2) 

WS  'c>7-'o8  Psychology.    Groos:  Feeling  and  will  in  the  child  (i) 
Kinkel:  The  idea  and  the  life  of  the 

human  soul 
Pedagogy.    Siebeck:  History  of  education  and  pedagogy  since 

the  Middle  Ages  (3) 

SS  '08  Pedagogy.    Groos:  Outlines  of  pedagogy  (2) 
WS  'o8-'oo,  Psychology.    Groos:     Psychology  (9) 


156   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy.    Siebeck:  Outlines  of  didactics  and  methodology 

of  instruction  (2) 

SS  '09  Psychology.    Messer  (a.p.) :  Exercises  in  exper.  psych. 
Pedagogy.    Siebeck:  History  of  education  and  pedagogy  since 
the  age  of  Humanism  (3) ;  The  nature,  origin, 
and  development  of  speech  (2) 
Groos:  Pestalozzi,  in  philosophical  seminar  (i) 
WS  'oo-'io  Psychology.    Messer  (a.p.)  :   Psych,  of  will  (i) ;    In- 
troduction to  scientific  works  in  the 
sphere  of  psych,  and  ped.  (by  appoint- 
ment) 

Ethics.    Weidenbach  (d) :  Ethics 
Pedagogy.    Groos:  Outlines  of  ped.  (2) 

Messer  (a.p.) :  Lectures  on  Natorp's  social  ped. 
(«H) 

GOTTINGEN 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Goedeckemeyer :  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Baumann:    History  of  ped.  including   curricula 

and  lessons  in  the  higher  schools  (3) 
WS  'o7-'o8  Psychology.    Midler:  Psychology  (4) 
SS  '08  Psychology.     Baumann:  Outlines  of  ped.  psych.  (2) 

Midler:   Memory  and  the  voluntary  direc- 
tion of  thought  (4) 
WS  'o8-'o9  Psychology.     Midler:  Psychology  (4) 

Ethics.    Husserl:  Fundamental  problems  in  ethics  (2) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Midler:  Psycho-physical  method  (2) ;  Exper. 

psych. 

Pedagogy.    Baumann:  History  of  ped.  (2). 

WS 'oo-' 10  Psychology.    Midler:  Psychology  (4) ;  Exper.  psych. 
Midler  and  Katz  (d) :  Exper.  psych,  (i) 
Ethics.    Nelson  (d) :  Principles  of  ethics  (4) 
Pedagogy.    Husserl:  General  history  of  pedagogy  (2) 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  157 

GREEFSWALD 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Schuppe:  Psychology  (3) 

Pedagogy.    Rehmke:  History  of  ped.  ,(3) ;    Systems  of  ped. 

(3) 

WS  'oy-'oS  Nothing  offered 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Rehmke:  Psychology  (3) ;    The  freedom  of 

the  will  (2) 
Ethics  and  Pedagogy.    Schuppe:  Outlines  of  ethics  and  ped. 

(3) 

WS  'oS-'og  Nothing  offered. 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Schuppe:  Psychology  (3) 

Schunkel  (a.p.) :  History  of  psych.  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Rehmke:  History  and  systems  of  ped.  (3) 
WS  '09-' 10  Psychology.    Schmekel  (a.p.) :    Methods  and  results 

of  exper.  psych.  (2) 

HALLE 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Ebbinghaus:  Experimental  psychology  (2) 

Uphues  (a.p.) :    General  and  ped.  psych.  (2) 
Schwarz  (d) :   General  psychology  (i) 
Pedagogy.    Fries:    The  Prussian  educational  system  in  its 

historical  development  (i) 
Schwarz  (d) :    General  pedagogy  with  reference 

to  experimental  didactics  (3) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Psychology.    Busse :  Psychology  (4) 

Schwarz    (d) :     Introduction    to   exper. 

psych.  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Fries:    History  of  pedagogy  since  the  Middle 

Ages  (2) ;  Pedagogical  exercises  (i)* 
SS  '08  Psychology.     Uphues  (a.p.) :  Psychology  (4) 

Aall  (d) :  Introduction  to  exper.  psych.  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Fries:  Selected  chapters  in  general  didactics  (i) 
A  all  (d) :  Experimental  pedagogy  (2) 


158   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

WS  'o8-'c>9  Psychology.    Ebbinghaus:  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Fries:  History  of  ped.  since  the  Middle  Ages  (i) 

Schwarz  (d) :  Experimental  pedagogy  (2) 
SS  '09  Psychology.     Uphues:  Psychology  (4) 

Ebbinghaus:  Experimental  psychology  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Fries:    The  Prussian  educational  system  in  its 
historical  development  (i) ;  Ped.  exercises  (i) 
WS  '09-' 10  Psychology.    Meumann:  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Meumann:  Introduction  to  pedagogy  (2) 

Fries:  History  of  ped.  since  the  Middle  Ages  (2) ; 
Pedagogical  exercises  (i) 

HEIDELBERG 

SS  '07  Pedagogy.  Uhlig:  The  most  important  disputed  questions 
of  the  present  concerning  the  organization 
and  administration  of  instruction  in  the 
higher  schools  (2) ;  Extracts  from  the  ped. 
writings  of  Herbart  (i) ;  Lectures  on  parts  of 
pedagogical  poems  of  Lucretius  and  Ovid  (i) 
Boeckel  (Gymnasial  Director) :  Practical  ped. 

Exercises  (2)  * 

WS  'o7~'o8  Psychology.    Elsenhaus  (d) :    Psychology  (4) 
Ethics.     Windelband:  Ethics  (4) 

Pedagogy.  Uhlig:  History  of  educ.,  instruction,  and  ped. 
theories  (2) ;  Lectures  on  the  pedagogical 
classics  (i) 

SS  '08  Pedagogy.  Uhlig:  The  most  important  disputed  ques- 
tions of  the  present  concerning  the  organiza- 
tion and  administration  of  instruction  hi  the 
higher  schools  (i) 

WS  'oS-'og  Pedagogy.  Uhlig:  History  of  educ.,  instruction,  and 
ped.  theories  (2) ;  Herbart's  outline 
of  ped.  lectures  and  E.  v.  Sallwtirk's 
Normalstufen 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  159 

SS  '09  Ethics.     Troeltsch:  Ethics  (5) 

Pedagogy.  Uhlig:  The  most  important  disputed  questions 
of  the  present  concerning  the  organization  and 
administration  of  instruction  in  the  higher 
schools  (2) 

WS  'oo-'io  Pedagogy.     Uhlig:  Ped.  Classics,  Rousseau  and  Pes- 
talozzi  (i) 

JENA 

SS  '07  Ethics.    Rein:  Outlines  of  ethics  (2) 

Pedagogy.    Rein:  General  didactics  (2);   Ped.  seminar  with 

practical  exercises  (3) 
WS  'o7-'o8  Psychology.    Eucken:  Psychology  (3) 

Pedagogy.    Rein:  Special  didactics  (3) ;  Foreign  school  sys- 
tems (i) ;  Ped.  seminar  (3) 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Linke   (d) :  Psychology  (3) 
Ethics.    Eucken:    Ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Rein:    Special  didactics  (2);   Life  and  teaching 

of  Herbart;   Ped.  seminar  (3) 
WS  'oS-'og  Psychology.    Liebmann:  Psychology  (3) 
Ethics.    Rein:  Outlines  of  ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Rein:   General  pedagogy  (i) ;   Ped.  seminar  (3) 

Eucken:  History  of  modern  pedagogy  (i) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Rein:  Elements  of  empirical  psych.  (2) 

Linke  (d) :  Applied  psych.  (2) ;  Attention  (i) 
Pedagogy.    Rein:  General  didactics  (2) ;  Ped.  seminar  (3) 
WS  'og-'io  Psychology.    Eucken:  Psychology  (2) 

Strohmayer  (d) :  Neurological  diagnosis, 
with  practical  exercises  (i);  Discov- 
ery and  treatment  of  mental  weak- 
ness in  youth,  for  physicians  and 
teachers 

Ethics.    Linke  (d) :   Principal  problems  of  ethics  and  juris- 
prudence (2) 


l6o   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy.    Rein:  Herbart  (2) ;   Special  didactics  (3) ;    Fed. 
seminar  (3) 

KIEL 

SS  '07  Ethics.     Tonnies  (d) :  Sociology  and  ethics  of  family  life  (i) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Psychology.    Martins:   Psychology  (4) ;   Psych,  sem- 
inar (2) 

SS  '08  Nothing  offered 
WS  'oS-'og  Psychology.    Deussen:    Psychology  and  systems  of 

Phil.  (4) 

SS  '09  Psychology.    Martins:   Psych,  seminar  (2) 
WS  'oo-'io  Psychology.    Martins:    Psychology  (4);  Psych,  semi- 
nar (2) 

KONIGSBERG 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Ach:  Exper.  psych,  works,  in  seminar  * 

Ethics.    Kowalewsky  (d) :  Fundamental  problems  in  ethics  (i) 
WS  'o7-'o8  Psychology.    Ach:  Child  psych,  and  exper.  pedagogy 

d) 
SS  '08  Psychology.     Ach:   Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.     Walter:'  History  and  outlines  of  pedagogy  (4) 
WS  'oS-'og  Pedagogy.    Walter:    History  and  outlines  of  peda- 
gogy (4) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Ach:    Introduction  to  exper.  psych.  (iH)  > 

Exper.  psych.  (6) 
Hallerworden  (d) :  Chapters  in  applied  psych. 

(i) 

Ethics.    Kowalewsky  (d) :   Ethics  (2) 

Pedagogy.    Goedeckemeyer :    History  and  outlines  of   peda- 
gogy (4) 
WS  'OQ-'IO  Psychology.    Ach:    Psych.  (4) ;    Exper.  psych,  (by 

appointment) 

Hallerworden  (d) :  Shakespeare's  dra- 
matic art  as  a  subject  for  applied 
psych.  (2) 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  l6l 

LEIPSIC 
SS  '07  Psychology.    Wundt:   Psychology  (4) ;   Psych.  Seminar 

Wirth  (a.p.) :    Psych,  of  vision  (2) 

Ethics.    Barth  (a.p.) :  Introduction  to  moral  philosophy  (i^) 
Pedagogy.     Volkelt:  History  of  pedagogy  I,  Middle  Ages  to 

Rousseau  (4) ;    Phil.-ped.  seminar 
Jungmann:     Introduction    to    pedagogy     (2); 

Practical  pedagogical  seminar 
WS/o7-'o8  Psychology.    Brahn(d):  Psychology  (4) ;  Child  psych. 

(2) ;  Sense  perception  (i) 
Wundt:   Psych,  seminar 

Ethics.    Heinze:  Ethics  and  outlines  of  jurisprudence 
Pedagogy.     Volkelt:    History  of  pedagogy,  II,  Rousseau   to 

Herbart  (3) ;   Phil.-ped  seminar 
Jungmann:    History  of  higher  instruction  from 
the  Reformation  to  the  present  (2);    Prac.- 
ped.  seminar. 

Barth  (a.p.) :    Essentials  in  education  and  the 
theory  of  instruction  on  the  basis  of  the  psy- 
chology of  the  present  (2) ;   Ped.  Society 
SS  '08  Psychology.     Wundt:   Psychology  (4) :    Psych,  seminar 
Ethics.    Richter  (d):    Critical  history  of  ethics 

Lipps  (d)  :  Philosophical  ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.     Volkelt:  Pedagogy  in  the  school  of  Herbart  (i); 

Phil.-ped.  seminar 
Jungmann:  Introduction  to  ped.  (2) ;   Practical- 

ped.  seminar 
WS  'o8-'oo,  Psychology.    Wirth  (d) :    Experimental    analysis    of 

attention  (2) 
Krueger  (d) :    Comparative  psych,    of 

primeval  races 
Lipps  (d) :  Outlines  and  essentials  of 

psych.  (3) 
Wundt:  Psych,  seminar. 

1C 


162   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy.     Volkelt:  General  pedagogy  (3) ;  Phil.-ped.  semi- 
nar 

Earth  (a.p.) :  History  of  pedagogy  from  the 
Renaissance  to  the  Enlightenment  (2) ;  Fed. 
Society 

Jungmann:  History  of  higher  education  since  the 
Reformation  (2);  Interpretation  of  Latin 
sources  of  pedagogy  (i) 

SS  '09  Psychology.     Wundt:     Psychology    (4) ;     Psych,    seminar 
Wundt,  Wirth  (a.p.),  and  Klemm  (d) :  Psych. 

laboratory  (29) 

Wirth    (a.p.) :     Theory  of  psych,  method  (2) 
Krueger  (d)  :  Psych,  and  ethics  of  economical 

living  (2) 

Brahn  (d) :    Child  psych,  and  exper.  peda- 
gogy (2) 
Pedagogy.     Volkelt:    History  of  pedagogy   (4) ;    Phil.-ped. 

seminar,  Goethe's  views  of  life 
Jungmann:   Didactics  of  the  higher  schools  (2) ; 

Practical-ped.  seminar 
Rietschel:  History  of  pedagogy. 

WS  'OQ-'IO  Psychology.    Wundt  and  Wirth  (a.p.) :   Psych,  labora- 
tory (7) 

Wirth  (a.p.) :  Psychology  (4) 
Salow  ( ?) :  Introductory  course  in  ex- 
per. psych.  (2) 

Brahn  (d) :  Outlines  of  psychology  (iH) 
Klemm  (d) :   History  of  modern  psych. 

(2) 

Ethics.    Earth:   History  and  systems  of  ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.     Volkelt:  History  of  ped.  from  Rousseau  to  Her- 
bart    (3) ;     Phil.-ped.    seminar,    Jean    Paul's 
Levana  and  extracts  from  the  writings  of  W.  v. 
Humboldt 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  163 

Earth  (a.p.) :  Essentials  of  the  theory  of  educa- 
tion and  instruction  on  the  basis  of  modern 
psych.  (2) 

Jungmann  (a.p.) :  Introduction  to  pedagogy  (2) ; 
Practical-ped.  seminar 

Hofmann  (Theology) :  Pedagogy  and  its  history 
(4) ;  Pedagogical  seminar  (i) 

Lange  (Medicine) :  School  hygiene  and  school 
disease  (2) 

MARBURG 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Menzner  (a.p.) :    Psychology  (4) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Ethics.    Menzner  (a.p.) :  Ethics  (2) 

Pedagogy.    Natorp:   History  of  pedagogy  since  the  Renais- 
sance (3) ;  Phil.  ped.  seminar  * 
SS  '08  Ethics.    Cohen:  Ethics  and  jurisprudence  (4) 
WS  'o8-'og  Psychology.     Cohen:    Psych,  as  an  encyclopedia  of 

philosophy  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Natorp:  General  pedagogy  (3) 

SS  '09  Psychology.    Schwarz:  Psych,  of  mental  labor  and  endow- 
ment, with  experiments  (i) 
WS  'cxj-'io  Psychology.    Natorp:    General  psych.    (3) ;    Psych. 

exercises  (2) 
Schwarz:  Introduction  to  exper.  psych. 

(2) 

Pedagogy.  Natorp:  History  of  pedagogy  since  the  beginning 
of  modern  times  (3) ;  Herbart's  philosophy 
and  ped.  (a) 

MUNICH 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Pfander  (d) :  Outlines  of  psychology  (4) 

Schneider  (d) :    Empirical  psychology  (4) 
Ethics.    Scheler  (d) :  Fundamental  questions  in  ethics  (3) 


164   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Pedagogy.    Rehm:   History  of  pedagogical  theories  from  the 

Enlightenment  to  the  present  (4) 
WS  'oy-'oS  Psychology.    Lipps:  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Pf Under  (d) :  Outlines  of  the  theory  of  education 
and  instruction  on  psychological  principles  (4) 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Schneider  (a.p.) :  Empirical  psych.  (4) 
v.  Asler  (d)  :  Outlines  of  psych.  (4) 
Lipps:  Psych,  seminar  * 
Ethics.    Lipps:  Ethics  and  phil.  principles  of  the  theory  of 

law  and  society  (4) 
Pedagogy.    Rehm:    Theory  of  pedagogy  and  didactics  for 

higher  schools  (4) 
Fischer  (d) :  Ped.  exercises  * 
WS  'o8-'o9  Psychology.    Lipps:  Psychology  I  (5) 

Pedagogy.    Pfander  (d) :  Outlines  of  the  theory  of  education 

and  instruction  on  psych,  principles  (4) 

SS  '09  Psychology.    Schneider  (a.p.) :    Psych,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  ped.  questions  involved  (4) 
v.  Asler  (d) :  Psych.  (4) ;  Psych,  exercises  (i) 
Fischer  (d) :   Psych,  exercises  (1^2) 
Burger  (d) :  Art  and  race  psych.  (2) 
Ranke:  Anthropological  psych.  (4) 
Ethics.    Geiger  (d) :   Introduction  to  ethical  problems  (2) 

Fischer  (d) :   Introduction  to  problems  of  sociology 

(3) 
Pedagogy.    Rehm:   History  of  ped.  theories  (4) 

Jordan:    Fundamental  questions  hi  the  method 

of  modern  language  instruction  (i) 
WS  'OQ-'IO  Psychology.    Lipps:     General    psych.    (5) ;     Psych. 

seminar  (ij^) 

Fischer  (d) :  Psych,  exercises  (iH) 

Meyer  (d) :  Psych,  of  Aristotle  (i) 

Ethics.    Scheler  (d) :  Fundamental  problems  of  ethics  (4) 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  165 


MUNSTER 

SS  '07  Psychology.    Meumann:    Empirical  psychology  (4) 
WS  'o7-'o8  Psychology.    Geyser  (a.p.) :  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Meumann:    General  ped.  on  psych,  and   exper. 

principles  (2) 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Meumann:    Introduction   to   exper.   psych. 

and  ped.  (2) 
WS  'oS-'op  Psychology.    Meumann:  Introduction  to  exper.  psych. 

and  ped.  (2) 

Geyser  (a.p.) :  Psychology  (4) 
Ethics.    Koppelmann  (d) :    The  most  important    problems 

of  ethics  and  jurisprudence 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Meumann:  Psych,  exercises 

Pedagogy.    Koppelmann  (d) :    Gymnasial  pedagogy  and  the 

teacher's  office  (2) 

WS  'oo-'io  Psychology.    Geyser  (a.p.) :   Psychology  (4) ;   Discus- 
sion of  psych,  questions  (i) 

Pedagogy.    Cauer:   Outlines  and  selected  chapters  in  didac- 
tics (2) 

ROSTOCK 

SS  '07  Ethics.    Erhardt:  Ethics  (2) 

WS  'o7-'o8  Nothing  offered 

SS  '08  Psychology.    Erhardt:  Psychology  (4) 

WS  'oS-'og  Pedagogy.    Erhardt:  Pedagogy  (2) 

SS  '09  Ethics.    Erhardt:    Ethics  (2) ;    Exercises  in  the  ethics  of 

Ed.  v.  Hartmann  (2) 
WS  'o9-'io  Nothing  offered 

STRASSBURG 

SS  '07  Nothing  offered 

WS  'o7~'o8  Psychology.    Baeumker:  Psychology  (4) 
Ethics.    Frhr.  v.d.  Pfordten  (d) :  Ethics  (2) 


1 66      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

SS  '08  Pedagogy.    Ziegler:    Pedagogy  (2) 

WS  'o8-'oo  Psychology.    Ziegler:  Empirical  psych.  (4) 

Ethics.    Ziegler:  Ethics  (2) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Baeumker:  Psych,  exercises  (2) 

Pedagogy.    Ziegler:  History  of  ped.  (2) 
WS  'OQ-'IO  Psychology.    Baeumker:   Psychology  (4) ;   Introd.  to 

exper.  psych,  (i) 
Ethics.    v.d.  Pfordten  (d) :  Ethics  (2) 

Wundt  (d) :  History  of  Greek  ethics  (2) 

TUBINGEN 

SS  '07  Nothing  offered 

WS  'oy-'oS  Psychology.    Maier:  Psychology  (4) 

Ethics.    Maier:  Ethics  (4) 
SS  '08  Psychology.    Spitta:  General  psych.  (4) 

Ethics.    Adickes:   The  deterministic  viewpoint  and  its  con- 
sequences for  religion,  ethics,  and  pedagogy  (i) 
WS  'oS-'cx)  Psychology.     Adickes:  Psychology  (4) 

Ethics:  Spitta:  Philosophical  ethics  (4) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Spitta:  General  psych.  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Schiele  (d) :  Church  and  school  in  the  nineteenth 

century 
WS  'oo-'io  Psychology.    Maier:  Psychology  (4) 

Ethics.    Adickes:  Philosophical  ethics  and  jurisprudence  (4) ; 
Exercises  hi  ethical  questions  (i) 

WURZBURG 

SS  '07  Ethics.    Scherer  (d) :  Ethics  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Boll:  Theory  and  history  of  educ.  and  instruction 
from  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  present  (4) 
WS  'o7-'o8  Psychology.    Scherer  (d) :  Psychology  (4) 

Buehler  (d) :    Psych,   of  speaking  and 
reading  (2) 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  167 

SS  '08  Ethics.    Scherer  (d) :  Ethics  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Buehler  (d) :  Exper.  ped.  (4) 
WS  'oS-'oQ  Psychology.    Kiilpe:  Psychology  (4) 

Scherer  (d) :  Psychology  (4) 

Pedagogy.    Stolzle:  Logic  and  the  theory  of  method  (4) 
SS  '09  Psychology.    Kiilpe:    Psych,  of  thought  and  feeling  (2) ; 

Psych,  exercises  (2) 

Kiilpe  and  Buehler  (d) :  Exper.  psych.  (5) 
Buehler  (d) :  Child  psychology  (2) ;  Introd. 

to  exper.  psych.  (2) 

Ethics.    Neudecker  (d) :  The  trend  of  modern  ethics  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Stahlin:  History  of  ped.  (4) 
WS  '09-' 10  Psychology.     Buehler  (d) :  Exper.  psych.  (2) 
Pedagogy.    Buehler  (d) :  Exper.  ped.  (4) 

The  University  Pedagogical  Seminar. — Notwithstand- 
ing the  strong  support  given  it  by  a  few  of  the  best-known 
leaders  in  educational  thought,  the  university  pedagogi- 
cal seminar,  with  practice  school  attached,  has  not  found 
a  permanent  place  in  many  institutions.  The  work  of 
Herbart,  Brzoska,  Stoy,  and  Ziller  has  already  been  de- 
scribed. These  men  believed  in  a  university  seminar  offer- 
ing opportunity  for  both  theoretical  and  practical  training 
and  serving  the  double  purpose  of  training  teachers  and 
developing  pedagogical  science,  through  carefully  directed 
experimentation.  By  all  of  them  the  practice  school  was 
regarded  as  a  necessity,  and  in  their  work  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  Brzoska,  who  was  not  able  to  secure  one)  it 
was  the  center  of  interest  and  effort.  Leipsic  and  Jena 
are  the  only  universities  now  maintaining  practical  peda- 


1 68      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

gogical  seminars  with  an  opportunity  for  practice  teach- 
ing by  students  in  connection  with  their  theoretical 
pedagogical  study.  At  Leipsic  the  seminar  stands  in  con- 
nection with  the  city  Gymnasium  and  Realgymnasium, 
which  are  only  indirectly  under  the  control  of  the  univer- 
sity. At  Jena  only  is  there  a  practice  school  maintained 
entirely  by  the  university.  As  the  most  prominent  mod- 
ern advocate  of  the  university  pedagogical  seminar  with 
practice  school  attached,  Professor  William  Rein  may 
be  permitted  to  speak. 

"  The  Significance  of  the  Pedagogical  Seminar  of  the  University  and 
Its  Problem.  —  The  pedagogical  seminar  of  the  university  has  a 
double  task.  On  the  one  hand,  it  promotes  the  development  of 
pedagogical  science;  on  the  other,  the  theoretical  and  practical 
training  of  educators  who  are  ambitious  for  scientific  knowledge. 
At  first  it  seems  impossible  to  reconcile  these  two  demands.  They 
are,  however,  inseparably  linked  together. 

"  i.  First  of  all  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  universities,  the 
highest  centers  of  intellectual  education  belonging  to  a  nation, 
should  not  ignore  such  an  important  matter  as  the  education  of 
the  different  classes  of  the  people.  If  they  do  it,  they  estrange 
themselves  from  the  life  of  the  people  and  renounce  their  influence 
on  large  and  important  fields  of  public  life.  Both  suffer  under 
this  neglect.  The  universities  lose  themselves  in  scientific  research, 
and  educational  affairs  are  left  to  the  pedagogy  of  the  state  or  to 
laymen.  However  excellent  the  work  of  these  may  be,  it  is  be- 
yond question  that  the  far-reaching  problems  of  education,  so 
significant  for  the  development  of  a  people,  can  best  be  exam- 
ined and  furthered  where  practical  philosophy  flourishes,  and 
constantly  considers  the  aim  of  all  human  life;  where  empirical 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  169 

psychology  seeks  to  discover  the  motions  and  laws  of  individuality 
and  the  soul  of  the  people,  and  where,  finally,  hygiene  and  physi- 
ology explain  the  conditions  of  bodily  welfare.  In  close  connection 
with  such  fundamental  investigations,  the  study  of  pedagogy  will 
undoubtedly  prosper  best,  and  progress  in  the  science  of  pedagogy 
can  be  made  most  rapidly  in  the  university. 

"  Surely  there  the  conditions  are  most  favorable  for  introducing 
the  future  generations  of  educators  into  the  scientific  laboratory, 
and  for  laying  a  good  foundation  for  a  successful  career.  The 
necessary  requirement  for  this  is  threefold:  (i)  A  clear  under- 
standing of  the  educational  problems  of  society ;  (2)  a  warm  heart 
for  youth,  upon  whom  the  future  of  the  people  rests;  (3)  strong 
and  energetic  participation  in  the  education  of  the  people.  It  is 
not  .difficult  to  prove  that  these  three  requirements  can  best  be 
fulfilled  in  a  pedagogical  seminar  of  the  university  which  is  con- 
nected with  a  practice  school.  A  knowledge  of  the  problems  of 
education  can  best  be  obtained  where  scientific  pedagogy  is  nat- 
urally cultivated,  because  it  must  continually  stand  in  close  rela- 
tion to  practical  philosophy,  empirical  psychology,  and  physiol- 
ogy. With  this  clearness  of  vision  and  sharpness  of  insight  into 
educational  problems  must  be  connected  a  warm  feeling  for  youth, 
their  needs  and  their  desires,  as  well  as  a  strong  will  and  ability 
to  realize  the  ideals  of  education.  The  foundation  for  these 
qualities  can  be  laid,  and  existing  talent  can  be  trained,  through 
practice  in  teaching,  which  is  offered  in  the  practice  school  of 
the  seminar.  In  such  a  place  therefore  educators  can  be  trained, 
who  upon  entering  into  our  public  school  life  carry  along  with 
them  so  much  force  and  practical  ability  that  they  contribute 
effectively  to  the  advancement  of  our  people's  education  every- 
where. 

"2.  In  the  pedagogical  seminar  of  the  university  that  has  a  prac- 
tice school,  the  relation  between  theory  and  practice  can  be  shown. 
This  is  necessary  for  all  progress.  Theory  separated  from  prac- 
tice is  not  sufficient,  for  it  is  a  long  and  difficult  way  from  knowl- 


1 70       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

edge  to  practice.  The  application  of  the  theory  must  be  well 
learned.  In  the  pedagogical  seminar  the  theoretical  lectures  and 
theses  of  the  students  can  continually  be  supplemented,  illus- 
trated, corrected,  and  vitalized  through  practical  teaching  in  the 
practice  school.  An  earnest  interchange  of  theory  and  practice 
may,  therefore,  be  introduced  and  continued,  as  it  is  necessary 
for  the  further  development  of  pedagogical  science  and  advan- 
tageous for  the  training  of  future  educators.  For  educators  are 
to  be  trained  here,  not  merely  teachers.  Whoever  has  only  the 
latter  in  mind  does  not  need  such  means.  He  can  renounce  a 
more  thorough  philosophical  training  and  concentrate  the  prepara- 
tion for  the  teaching  profession  upon  the  communication  of  good 
rules  for  the  teaching  of  those  subjects  in  which  the  candidate  has 
passed  his  examination.  Naturally  the  pedagogical  seminar  of 
the  university  is  far  from  such  a  conception. 

"  3.  Students  of  different  subjects  work  together  in  the  pedagogi- 
cal seminar  of  the  university.  This  can  but  exercise  a  most  bene- 
ficial influence  in  so  far  as  the  one-sidedness,  which  so  easily  comes 
through  the  study  of  subjects,  is  in  part  at  least  counterbalanced. 
The  young  men,  according  to  Lessing,  are  led  to  look  from  one 
science  into  another,  to  understand  the  educational  problem  as 
part  of  a  larger  problem,  and  to  value  a  single  subject  as  an  element 
of  a  larger  organism.  They  are  thus  led  through  a  more  thorough 
knowledge  of  details  up  to  a  higher  understanding,  which  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  any  truly  productive  work. 

"4.  In  the  pedagogical  seminar  of  the  university  not  only 
teachers  for  gymnasia,  but  also  teachers  for  all  higher  schools  are 
trained,  as  well  as  teachers  for  normal  schools  and  for  Real- 
schulen.  For  where  else  should  the  normal  school  teachers 
especially  receive  their  pedagogic  training?  At  the  same  time 
the  connection,  the  unity  of  the  entire  educational  system  is  con- 
tinually emphasized  as  well  as  the  correlation  of  the  single  parts. 
This  certainly  is  better  suited  to  a  continual  development  than 
an  artificial  isolation  of  schools  and  teachers,  even  if  the  latter 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  17 1 

plan  would  better  please  the  vanity  of  the  different  classes  of 
teachers. 

"5.  The  chief  problems  of  the  seminar  of  the  university  are, 
therefore,  to  awaken  enthusiasm  concerning  the  education  of 
the  people  in  general,  and  to  effect  an  understanding  of  the 
whole  educational  system.  On  this  basis  every  individual  should 
continually  work  and  should  get  acquainted  particularly  with  the 
special  organism  into  which  his  profession  will  introduce  him  later. 
In  a  word,  it  is  the  chief  task  of  the  seminar  of  the  university  to 
lay  the  foundation  which  leads  to  the  formation  of  pedagogical 
character.  The  true  conception  and  the  higher  understanding 
of  educational  problems  cannot  come  from  the  theoretical  instruc- 
tion of  the  university  alone,  or  from  the  study  of  a  special  science, 
but  both  come  through  practical  work.  In  his  intercourse  with 
children  the  future  teacher  must  control  himself,  and  habituate 
himself  to  order  and  to  regular  work ;  he  must  understand  clearly 
what  is  to  be  taught  and  must  refrain  from  doing  many  things 
which  otherwise  self-interest  might  easily  lead  him  to  do. 
Furthermore,  if  we  think  of  all  the  young  men  striving  for  a 
common  end,  and  of  the  influence  that  they  exercise,  of  the 
problems  which  are  the  same  for  them  all,  of  the  ideal  disposition 
which  shows  itself  in  frank  criticism  and  in  mutual  cooperation, 
the  seminar  of  the  university  can  well  be  called  an  excellent  school 
for  the  formation  of  character.  Teachers  thus  trained  carry  their 
ideals  out  among  the  people  and  work  with  earnest  zeal  for  the 
inspiration  of  society. 

"  It  is  doubtless  true,  also,  that  the  universities  furnish  the  best 
opportunity  to  get  acquainted  with  the  biological  bases  of  pedagogy 
and  to  study  their  points  of  contact  with  medicine  so  far  as  this 
is  necessary  for  the  teacher.  Pedagogical  biology,  hygiene,  and 
pathology  can  here  be  drawn  into  the  range  of  pedagogical  study, 
particularly  if  an  educational  institution  can  furnish  the  illustra- 
tive material,  as  is  the  case  at  Jena,  where,  on  the  Sophienhohe, 
an  institution  for  mentally  defective  children  has  been  erected. 


172   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

"6.  Finally  the  pedagogical  seminar  of  the  university  is  the  best 
place  for  the  further  development  of  the  science  of  pedagogy. 
While  the  schools  of  the  state  are  dependent  upon  instructions 
from  the  state,  so  that  there  is  no  opportunity  for  experiments,  the 
pedagogical  seminar  of  the  university  with  its  practice  school 
enjoys  academic  liberty.  It  has,  therefore,  a  great  advantage 
over  the  gymnasium  and  over  the  seminar  for  normal  school 
teachers.  For  it  can  make  different  experiments,  naturally  not 
without  well-defined  plans  and  a  certain  object  in  view,  but  such 
experiments  as  have  been  well  considered  theoretically,  such  as 
changes  in  the  curriculum,  introduction  of  new  means  of  illustra- 
tion, examination  of  new  textbooks,  psychological  and  physiolog- 
ical investigations,  new  methods  of  procedure  in  the  general  and 
special  field  of  teaching,  and  so  on.  Whatever  has  stood  the  test  of 
practical  experience  in  those  practice  schools  of  scientific  pedagogy 
can  then  safely  be  introduced  into  our  public  schools.  In  this  way 
a  healthy  progress  takes  place  in  our  science  and  consequently  also 
in  our  school  system.  This  same  thought  has  been  expressed  by 
Kant.  'Experimental  schools  must  be  established  before  we  can 
establish  standard  schools.'  (Erst  muss  man  Experimentalschulen 
errichten,  ehe  man  Normalschulen  errichten  kann.)  Unfortunately 
the  authorities  have  not  listened  sufficiently  to  this  demand."  J 

The  Gymnasial  Seminar  is  all  but  universal  in  Ger- 
many to-day  as  the  institution  hi  which  teachers  in  the 
higher  schools  receive  their  special  pedagogical  training. 
In  Prussia,  where  it  prevails  throughout,  there  are  forty- 
nine  seminars  (1909)  with  a  capacity  of  approximately 
three  hundred  candidates,  the  number  for  each  seminar 
being  legally  limited  to  six.  A  seminar  may  be  moved  or 
discontinued  at  any  time  at  the  option  of  the  provincial 
1  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagokik,  Heft  VI,  532. 


OPINION  AND  PRACTICE  173 

school  board.  The  qualifications  of  the  director,  the 
opportunities  for  teaching  afforded  by  his  school,  and  the 
general  geographical  position  are  the  main  factors  in  the 
location  of  a  seminar.  The  number  of  seminars  and 
the  number  of  candidates  admitted  to  them  depend  upon 
the  demand  for  teachers.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  gov- 
ernment to  maintain  only  enough  seminars  to  supply 
the  annual  demand  for  teachers,  which  is  not  great.  In 
Saxe- Weimar  there  is  only  one  higher  school  seminar, 
that  connected  with  the  Gymnasium  at  Jena.  It  is  con- 
ducted in  practically  the  same  manner  as  the  Prussian 
seminars  except  that  its  members  are  also  required  to 
work  in  the  university  pedagogical  seminar  and  its  prac- 
tice school.  In  Saxony,  also,  there  is  but  one  higher 
school  seminar,  that  which  has  been  described  as  the  prac- 
tical pedagogical  seminar  of  the  University  of  Leipsic. 
The  dominating  influence  of  Prussia  in  the  German  Em- 
pire exists  in  school  affairs  as  in  other  things,  and  there 
seems  to  be  a  general  movement  among  the  German 
states  to  adopt  the  Prussian  gymnasial  seminar. 

Perhaps  the  most  prominent  modern  supporters  of  the 
gymnasial  seminar  are  Dr.  Hermann  Schiller,  who,  at  the 
time  of  his  death  in  1902,  was  director  of  the  Gymnasium 
in  Giessen,  director  of  the  seminar  connected  with  it,  pro- 
fessor of  pedagogy  in  the  university,  and  a  member  of  the 
Examination  Commission  for  Prussia ;  Dr.  Otto  Frick,  who 
was  director  of  the  Franckesche  Stiftungen  and  director 


174      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

of  the  seminar,  the  seminarium  prceceptorum,  from  1881 
till  his  death  in  1892 ;  and  Dr.  Wilhelm  Fries,  who  has 
held  the  same  position  since  1892.  Scarcely  less  earnest, 
however,  has  been  the  support  of  many  others,  —  direc- 
tors of  seminars,  directors  of  higher  schools,  government 
school  officials,  and  professors  hi  the  university  who  be- 
lieve that  the  practical  training  of  teachers  belongs  in 
the  gymnasial  seminar  rather  than  in  the  university. 

The  points  upon  which  there  is  general  agreement 
among  these  men  are  as  follows:  i.  The  university  can 
offer  valuable  training  in  theoretical  pedagogy,  especially 
in  philosophy,  ethics,  logic,  psychology,  and  the  history  of 
pedagogy.  2.  The  work  in  the  theory  of  pedagogy  that 
is  practicable  hi  the  university  is  not  sufficient,  but  should 
be  supplemented  by  similar  work  in  the  gymnasial  semi- 
nar in  close  connection  with  the  actual  work  of  the  school. 

3.  The  spirit  of  the  university  is  scientific  rather  than 
practical,  and  it  is  too  far  removed  from  the  actual  needs 
of  the  school  to  make  successful  practical  training  possible. 

4.  Both  the  time  and  the  interest  of  the  university  student 
are  so  occupied  with  the  theoretical  and  scientific  work 
of  the  university  course  that  he  cannot  work  very  success- 
fully in  the  practical  sphere  of  the  school.     5.   The  diffi- 
culties which  must  always  be  encountered  hi  establishing 
a  practice  school  under  the  direction  of  the  university 
are  never  fully  overcome.     6.  The  candidate  needs  the 
completed  university  course  as  a  basis  for  his  practical 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  175 

training.  7.  The  candidate  needs  all  of  his  time,  strength, 
and  interest  free  to  devote  to  the  consideration  of  the 
current  problems  of  the  school.  8.  The  higher  school, 
under  the  management  of  a  well-trained  and  efficient 
rector  who  is  also  director  of  the  seminar,  offers  a  larger 
and  much  more  natural  field  for  practice  than  can  possibly 
be  provided  in  any  university  seminar.  9.  The  gymna- 
sal  seminar  affords  the  candidate  an  opportunity  to  com- 
bine the  study  of  pedagogical  theory  with  actual  practice 
under  normal  conditions  and  under  the  careful  supervision 
of  competent  teachers  and  organizers. 

It  seems  worth  while  to  quote  the  following  extracts 
from  the  writings  of  Schiller,  Frick,  and  Fries,  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  spirit  and  views  of  the  supporters  of  the 
gymnasial  seminar. 

"I  hope  the  reader  will  have  been  convinced  by  this  discussion 
that  a  seminar  connected  with  a  Gymnasium  is  in  a  position  to 
instruct  its  members  in  the  theory  of  pedagogy  at  least  as  well  as 
a  university  seminar.  Moreover,  if  the  university  has  no  practice 
school  of  its  own  that  is  a  real  school,  it  cannot  compete  at  all  in 
advantages  with  a  good  higher  school.  For  everywhere  in  the 
school  theory  and  practice  go  hand  in  hand,  and  the  young  teacher 
is  continually  in  a  position  to  see  the  practical  form  of  instruction 
and  education  and  to  learn  the  theoretical  foundation  of  method, 
or  to  observe  theory  in  its  practical  application.  He  has,  moreover, 
the  advantage,  not  to  be  lightly  esteemed,  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  real  conditions  in  which  he  will  sometime  be  placed,  not 
ideal  and  artificial  conditions  which  are  scarcely  ever  realized  in 
practical  service." l 

'Schiller,  H.  S.,  Padagogische  Seminarien,  123. 


176   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

"It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  pedagogical  seminars  of  the  future 
will  effect  great  improvement  in  our  higher  schools.  There  is 
now  lacking  hi  these  schools  a  strong  and  sure  pedagogical  con- 
sciousness which  the  elementary  schools  have  possessed  for  a  long 
time,  mainly  on  account  of  the  work  of  the  Volksschule  seminars. 
In  important  and  far-reaching  questions  concerning  instruction 
and  education  accepted  opinions  are  still  totally  wanting.  Un- 
certainty and  the  lack  of  fixed  fundamental  principles  which  are 
to  be  attained  only  with  the  help  of  psychology  and  ethics,  of 
sociology  and  history,  are  characteristic  indications  of  a  deficient 
general  pedagogical  consciousness.  The  work  of  the  pedagogical 
seminars,  with  the  help  of  pedagogical  theory,  must  strive  towards 
clearness  and  towards  fixed  points  in  pedagogical  practice.  We 
may  expect  that  their  united  efforts  will  succeed  in  gradually 
freeing  practice  in  the  higher  schools  from  the  dominion  of  chance 
and  routine,  and  in  establishing  straight  lines  where  now  only 
confused  paths,  crossing  and  recrossing,  are  to  be  found.  Only 
in  this  case  will  they  become  real  nurseries  of  strong  and  sure 
pedagogical  knowledge  and  power ;  only  in  this  case  can  they  avoid 
being  a  negligible  quantity  hi  the  educational  questions  of  the 
nation." l 

"There  exists  the  question  of  the  training  of  teachers  for  the 
higher  schools,  a  question  created  by  the  crying  needs  in  this  sphere, 
which  are  clearly  visible  to  every  one  who  will  look.  Only  recently 
was  it  claimed  hi  a  pedagogical  magazine  that  the  former  custom, 
according  to  which  every  teacher  was  compelled  to  seek  independ- 
ently the  best  methods  through  long  years  of  individual  experi- 
mentation, was  the  best.  Such  an  expression  merits  considera- 
tion only  as  it  confirms  the  actual  condition  of  affairs.  The  young 
teacher  who  does  not  yet  know  how  he  should  instruct  under- 
takes, as  a  rule,  the  instruction  of  just  those  pupils  who  do  not  yet 
know  how  they  should  learn.  He  experiments  with  them  and 

1  Schiller,  H.  S.,  Padagogische  Seminarian,  168. 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  177 

also  with  the  successive  classes  in  turn,  and  it  is  sheer  good  luck 
if,  unadvised  and  left  to  himself  as  he  is,  he  does  not  follow  the  old 
way,  even  though  he  does  it  in  honest  effort.  We  conform  to  the 
recollections  of  our  own  schooltime,  and,  under  totally  changed 
conditions,  we  follow  the  example  of  this  or  that  revered  model 
among  our  own  teachers,  or  we  avoid  the  mistakes  of  others  under 
whom  we  once  suffered.  So,  at  best,  that  which  holds  together 
the  higher  schools  is  tradition;  in  truth,  chance,  crude  empiricism, 
experiment.  The  official  regulations  concerning  the  instruction 
of  candidates  in  their  Probejahr  by  the  directors,  however  judi- 
cious and  well  meaning  they  may  be,  remain  mere  paper,  and  they 
will  always  remain  so.  The  experience  which  the  writer  has  him- 
self had,  that  from  none  of  the  five  directors  under  whose  leader- 
ship he  once  worked,  did  he  ever  receive  any  instruction  or  even 
so  much  as  a  hint  worth  mentioning  concerning  his  work,  may  be 
heard  confirmed  everywhere,  not  only  by  the  older  but  by  the 
younger  colleagues.  A  director,  especially  in  a  large  institution, 
is  so  occupied  with  the  details  of  his  work,  particularly  with  the 
necessary  little  things,  that  even  where  indolence  has  not  yet  won 
the  mastery,  leisure  and  freedom  of  mind  fail  for  concerning  him- 
self with  the  instruction  of  candidates  as  thoroughly  as  is  now 
indispensable.  That  which  suffers  year  after  year  in  consequence 
is  the  priceless  wealth  of  the  nation,  the  youth  of  our  higher  classes 
of  society."  1 

"There  is  only  one  radical  cure,  —  the  establishment  of  practical 
seminars  in  connection  with  practice  schools  quite  after  the  analogy 
of  the  seminars  for  teachers  in  the  Volksschule.  Without  such 
practice  schools  they  remain  incomplete  and  unfruitful  creations 
which  are  never  vital  and  which,  therefore,  should  not  be  called 
into  existence  at  all."  2 

"Let  the  subject  seminars  of  the  university  preserve  their 
purely  scientific  character  and  devote  themselves  wholly  to  the 

1  Frick,  Otto,  Das  Seminarium  Praeceptorum,  54.         *  Ibid.,  56. 

N 


178       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

high  task  of  the  scientific  advancement  and  deepening  of  their 
members.  Practical  exercises  in  the  future  calling  of  the  teacher 
lie  outside  of  their  sphere  and  would,  even  if  they  were  attempted, 
place  the  peculiar  purpose  of  such  institutions  in  doubt.  But 
just  as  truly  let  the  opinion  be  once  for  all  abandoned,  that  scien- 
tific ability  alone  qualifies  one  to  undertake  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion and  that  consequently  the  quality  of  instruction  improves 
as  scientific  ability  rises.  Certainly  the  teacher  can  and  should 
exert  an  influence  through  the  example  of  the  ideal  life;  and, 
moreover,  this  will  be  possible,  especially  in  the  case  of  older 
pupils,  through  devoted  fulfillment  of  duty  and  through  scientific 
attainments;  but  the  pedagogical  art  is,  nevertheless,  much  too 
difficult  and  important  to  be  acquired  by  mere  use  or  to  be  fol- 
lowed only  incidentally.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  needed  a  thor- 
oughly thoughtful  introduction  to  its  laws,  and,  for  this  purpose, 
special  institutions  serving  this  particular  end."  l 

As  representative  of  those  who,  while  they  recognize 
the  value  of  the  gymnasial  seminar,  are  nevertheless  dis- 
posed to  criticize  it,  Fries  cites  the  objections  of  Director 
Vogel  as  follows :  — 

"In  his  essay  Upon  the  Seminar  Question,  he  censures  chiefly 
a  certain  academic  vanity  of  the  candidates.  He  does  not,  indeed, 
deny  the  advantages  of  the  existing  seminar  arrangements,  but  he 
raises  serious  doubts  concerning:  (i)  The  quarter  year  of  visiting, 
which  keeps  the  beginners  too  long  in  a  state  of  mere  receptivity ; 

(2)  the  requiring  of  a  written  lesson-plan  for  every  class  period ; 

(3)  the  insufficient  practical  employment;    (4)  the  disturbance 
of  regular  instruction,  which  is  produced  by  the  practice  lessons; 
(5)  the  regulation  that,  at  every  lesson,  the  director  or  an  author- 
ized teacher  must  be  present;  for,  on  the  one  side,  this  is  a  burden 

1  Fries,  Wilhelm,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehramt,  113. 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  179 

to  the  teachers,  and,  on  the  other,  it  produces  a  lack  of  independ- 
ence in  the  candidates.  The  Probejahr,  also,  seems  to  him  to  be 
insufficiently  fruitful,  because  it  offers  to  the  beginners  scarcely 
any  opportunity  to  strengthen  and  deepen  their  experience  through 
further  organized  instruction.  He  proposes,  therefore,  to  unite 
the  seminar  with  a  practice  school  placed  at  its  service,  such  as  exist 
in  the  case  of  the  seminars  for  the  teachers  in  the  lower  schools. 
The  practice  school  should  contain  only  the  lower  and  middle 
classes.  The  seminar  should  consist  of  one  director,  four  teachers, 
and  twenty  or  more  candidates.  The  time  of  training  he  places 
at  three  semesters.  Such  a  practice  school,  which  should  conduct 
classes  from  Untertertia  as  well  as  real  gymnasial  divisions,  would, 
according  to  Vogel's  view,  make  attempts  at  practice  teaching 
possible  earlier  than  a  regular  school.  Finally,  to  each  candidate 
he  would  assign  a  tutorship  over  a  number  of  pupils  from  the 
different  classes."  1 

Sallwtirk's  plan  for  the  training  of  teachers  is  also 
worthy  of  mention.  He  would  establish  a  special  state 
seminar  (Staatsseminar)  under  the  leadership  of  state 
authority,  and  separate  from  both  the  university  and 
any  particular  higher  school.  Schools  of  various  kinds, 
however,  should  be  available  for  purposes  of  observation 
and  practice.  Candidates  for  both  lower  and  higher 
schools  should  be  admitted,  and  each  should  be  required 
to  do  some  teaching  in  both  kinds  of  schools.  The  first 
lesson  plans  should  be  used,  not  in  school  classes,  but  in 
groups  of  candidates,  and  should  be  criticized  by  them. 
The  theoretical  study  should  include  short  courses  hi  the 
theory  of  science  (Wissenschaftslehre),  the  history  of  cul- 
1  Ibid.,  106. 


l8o       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

ture  (Kulturgeschichte),  psychology,  physiology,  ethics, 
pedagogy,  hygiene,  school  architecture,  and  drawing,  — 
a  rather  broad  field  for  one  year's  work. 

The  gymnasial  seminar,  in  its  modern  form,  is  still 
young  in  Germany.  The  schoolmen  feel  this,  and  they 
are  earnest  in  their  endeavors  to  increase  its  efficiency  as 
experience  points  the  way.  Seminar  directors  publish 
reports  from  time  to  time,  covering  their  experience  for  a 
series  of  years.  As  an  institution  it  is  still  in  process 
of  development,  but  the  testimony  of  school  directors 
whose  teachers  have  been  trained  in  it,  and  indeed  the 
opinion  of  educators  generally,  is  very  strong  in  its  favor. 

Length  of  Period  of  Practical  Training.  —  The  dura- 
tion of  the  period  of  practical  training  is  a  question  about 
which  there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  Not  all 
of  the  German  states  have  gymnasial  seminars  of  their 
own,  but  their  teachers  are  trained  in  those  of  other 
states.  Of  the  states  which  have  seminars,  Prussia, 
Braunschweig,  Saxe-Weimar,  Hesse,  and  Mecklenburg 
have  both  the  Seminarjahr  and  the  Probejahr;  Baden, 
Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Wtirttemberg  have  but  one  year  of 
practical  training.  From  1826  to  1890  the  Probejahr  had 
been  a  requirement  in  Prussia.  In  general  this  was 
simply  a  time  of  trial  teaching,  the  candidate  often 
receiving  no  particular  instruction  or  assistance  from  his 
superiors.  As  was  to  be  expected,  this  proved  unsatis- 
factory as  a  training  period,  and  in  1890  the  Seminarjahr 


OPINION   AND   PRACTICE  l8l 

was  instituted,  and  more  definite  rules  for  the  work  of 
the  Probejahr  were  prescribed.  There  are  many  who 
believe  that  both  of  these  years  are  important,  the  first 
as  a  time  for  the  study  of  theory  and  practice,  with 
emphasis  upon  the  former;  the  second  as  a  time  for 
the  study  of  theory  and  practice,  with  emphasis  upon 
the  latter.  The  present  law  in  Prussia  prescribes  two 
years,  and  German  officials  are  not  disposed  to  criticize 
existing  regulations  of  any  sort;  but  there  are  many 
who  think  that,  if  a  proper  division  of  time  were  made 
between  theoretical  study  and  actual  practice  during 
one  year,  quite  as  good  results  would  be  obtained  as  are 
now  secured  under  the  two-year  arrangement. 


CHAPTER  V 

STANDING  OF  THE  TEACHER  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS 

WHEN  the  candidate  has  received  his  certificate  as 
Oberlehrer,  or  teacher  in  the  higher  schools,  he  is  ready 
for  a  permanent  appointment.  A  few  years  ago,  when 
there  was  a  superabundance  of  teachers,  he  had  to  wait 
from  two  to  ten  years  for  such  an  appointment.  Five 
years  might  be  regarded  as  a  low  average.  In  the  mean- 
time he  might  teach  in  a  private  school  or  do  such  odd 
jobs  as  he  could  get,  which,  in  Germany,  are  not  abun- 
dant ;  but  he  was  not  permitted  to  do  work  that  was 
beneath  the  dignity  of  his  profession,  and  he  was  required 
to  hold  himself  in  readiness  for  an  appointment  at  any 
time.  At  present,  owing  to  a  scarcity  of  teachers 
throughout  Germany,  an  appointment,  as  already  stated, 
is  likely  to  come  at  once.  When  a  vacancy  occurs, 
qualified  teachers  are  chosen  as  their  names  appear  on  the 
waiting  list,  except  that  the  authorities  may  choose  any 
one  from  the  first  three.  Once  he  is  appointed,  the 
teacher  in  the  higher  schools,  like  every  other  German 
official,  occupies  a  very  clearly  defined  position  with 
reference  to  the  state  and  only  a  little  less  definite  posi- 

182 


STANDING  OF  THE  TEACHER  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS     183 

tion  in  his  relations  to  society.  Professionally  and  finan- 
cially the  state  has  fixed  his  status,  and  his  social  rank  is 
determined  more  by  his  birth  and  professional  position 
than  by  any  thing  else. 

Professionally  his  standing  is  as  clearly  recognized  as  is 
that  of  the  clergyman,  lawyer,  physician,  or  state  official 
of  any  sort.  In  Germany  there  is  not  only  a  profession  of 
teaching,  but  there  is  a  profession  of  teaching  in  the  higher 
schools.  Neither  a  teacher  in  the  lower  schools  nor  a 
university  professor  can  enter  that  profession  except 
through  the  straight  and  narrow  way  of  specific  prepara- 
tion for  it.  As  shown  in  preceding  chapters,  the  state 
has  sharply  defined  what  that  preparation  shall  be.  It 
has  also  provided  that,  when  a  man  has  met  the  conditions 
prescribed,  he  shall  receive  recognition  as  a  learned  man 
and  a  state  official  of  definite  rank.  He  cannot  be  de- 
prived of  his  position  except  for  cause.  Within  certain 
limits,  which  are  no  more  narrow  for  him  than  for  other 
German  officials,  he  is  left  free  to  follow  his  own  devices 
as  a  professional  expert.  If  he  is  reasonably  successful, 
no  one  is  likely  to  interfere  with  him.  If  he  shows  supe- 
rior ability,  either  as  an  administrator  or  as  a  teacher,  he  is 
always  in  line  of  promotion.  He  is  a  learned  man  along 
with  the  university  professor,  and  he  may  be  called  to  the 
latter's  chair  or  to  the  directorship  of  a  school  or  to  a 
higher  administrative  position  in  the  state.  He  begins 
his  professional  career  with  twenty-four  hours  of  teaching 


184   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

per  week ;  after  twelve  years  it  is  reduced  to  twenty-two 
hours,  and  after  twenty  years  it  may  be  further  reduced  to 
twenty  hours,  where  it  remains  for  the  remainder  of  his 
working  life.  The  upper  half  of  the  teachers  in  the 
Prussian  higher  schools,  that  is,  the  half  longest  in  service, 
the  minimum  period  being  twelve  years,  are  given  the 
title  of  professor,  and  they  are  promoted  from  class  five 
to  class  four  of  state  officials.  Since  the  teacher's  finan- 
cial compensation  is  definitely  determined  by  a  special 
law,  it  is  not  affected  by  this  promotion.  Whether  re- 
garded from  within  the  profession  or  from  without,  he 
may  always  have  the  stimulating  consciousness  of  a  defi- 
nite professional  recognition. 

Financially  the  teacher's  position  is  fixed  by  the  state. 
According  to  the  law  of  June  5,  1909,  the  salaries  of 
teachers  in  the  higher  schools  of  Prussia  which  are  sup- 
ported by  the  state  or  over  which  the  state  exercises  au- 
thority, are  as  follows :  — 

"§  i 
"The  annual  salary  is:  — 

"i.  For  the  principals  of  complete  institutions  (Gymnasia, 
Realgymnasia,  Oberrealschiden) :  — 

"a.  In  Berlin,  6000  to  7200  marks.1 
"b.  In  other  places,  5400  to  7200  M.,  besides  600  M.  ad- 
ditional for  living  expenses. 

"2.  For  the  principals  of  institutions  having  less  than  a  nine- 
year  course  (Progymnasien,  Realprogymnasien,  Realschulen) ,  4800 
to  7200  M.,  besides  400  M.  additional  for  living  expenses. 

1  The  mark  equals  about  twenty-four  cents  of  United  States  Money. 


STANDING  OF  THE  TEACHER  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS     185 

"3.   For  officially  appointed  scientific  teachers,  2700  to  7200  M. 

"4.  For  officially  appointed  teachers  who  have  passed  the  pre- 
scribed examination  as  drawing  teachers  for  the  higher  schools,  or 
who  have  proved  then*  qualifications  as  music  teachers  for  the 
higher  schools,  or  who  are  qualified  for  appointment  as  teachers 
in  the  Mittelschulen,  2100  to  4500  M. 

"5.  For  other  officially  appointed  technical  and  elementary 
teachers,  as  well  as  teachers  in  the  Vorschule,  1800  to  4200  M.  The 
scientific  assistants  receive  a  yearly  remuneration  of  from  2100 
to  3000  M. 

"§    ^ 

"The  increase  in  salary  is  given  in  the  form  of  additions  for 
term  of  service. 

"i.   For  principals  of  complete  institutions:  — 

"a.  In  Berlin    (§  i,  No.  i,  a),  6op  M.  additional  after 

3  and  6  years  of  service. 

"b.  In  other  places    (§  i,  No.  i,  b),  600  M.  additional 
after  3,  6,  and  9  years  of  service. 

"2.  For  the  principals  of  incomplete  institutions  (§  i,  No.  2), 
an  addition  of  600  M.  after  3,  6,  9,  and  12  years  of  service. 

"3.  For  scientific  teachers  (§  i,  No.  3),  700  M.  additional 
after  3,  6,  and  9  years  of  service  and  600  M.  additional  after  12, 
15,  18,  and  21  years  of  service. 

"4.  For  the  teachers  indicated  in  §  i,  No.  4,  an  addition 
of  300  M.  after  3,  6,  9,  12,  15,  18,  21,  and  24  years  of  service. 

"5.  For  other  technical  and  elementary  teachers,  as  well  as 
for  teachers  in  the  Vorschule  (§  i,  No.  5),  an  addition  of  300  M. 
after  3,  6,  9,  12,  15,  and  18  years  of  service,  and  an  addition  of 
200  M.  after  21,  24,  and  27  years  of  service. 

"The  remuneration  of  scientific  assistants,  indicated  in  §  i, 
begins  with  2100  M.  and  increases  after  one  year  to  2400  M., 
after  two  years  to  2700  M.,  and  after  four  years  to  3000  M."  ' 

1  Beier,  Adolph,  Die  hoheren  Schulen  in  Preussen,  848,  1909  edition. 


1 86        TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

The  salaries  in  other  states  are,  as  a  rule,  not  quite  as 
high  as  those  hi  Prussia.  Regularly  qualified  teachers  in 
city  schools  not  supported  by  the  state  must  be  paid  at 
least  as  much  as  the  state  schedule  indicates.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  in  the  larger  cities  they  are  usually  paid  a  little 
more,  otherwise  they  would  prefer  to  work  in  schools 
supported  by  the  state.  The  compensation  received 
by  teachers  in  purely  private  schools  is  usually  much  less 
than  that  paid  in  the  schools  supported  by  the  state  or 
the  cities. 

The  pension  law  of  Prussia  provides  that,  except  in 
special  cases,  if  a  teacher  is  incapacitated  for  service  or 
dies  before  he  has  served  ten  years,  no  pension  is  paid  to 
him  or  his  family.  If  he  is  incapacitated  after  ten  years 
of  service,  he  receives  a  pension  amounting  to  33^  per  cent 
of  the  sum  of  his  last  year's  salary  and  his  expense 
allowance,  with  an  increase  of  one  sixtieth  each  year 
thereafter.  After  forty  years  of  service,  or  at  the  age  of 
sixty-five,  he  may  retire  with  a  pension  amounting  to  75 
per  cent  of  his  last  year's  salary,  but  the  amount  may 
not  exceed  6000  marks.  In  case  of  his  death,  his  widow 
receives  four  tenths  of  the  pension  which  her  husband 
would  have  received  had  he  been  pensioned  on  the  day 
that  he  died,  but  the  amount  may  not  exceed  2400 
marks.  Each  of  their  children  who  is  under  eighteen 
years  of  age,  receives  one  fifth  of  the  amount  of  the 
widow's  pension.  In  case  of  the  death  of  both  parents, 


STANDING  OF  THE  TEACHER  IN  THE  HIGHER  SCHOOLS     187 

each  child  receives  one  third  of  the  amount  of  the 
widow's  pension.  But  in  no  case  can  the  total  amount 
paid  to  the  widow  and  children  exceed  the  amount  of 
the  pension  due  the  father  at  the  time  of  his  death. 
The  pension  laws  of  other  states  are  similar  to  those  of 
Prussia,  although  there  are  various  minor  differences. 

The  salary  of  the  higher  school  teacher  is  not  large, 
but  if  he  uses  strict  economy,  it  enables  him  to  pursue  the 
scholarly  life,  to  maintain  his  family  in  comfort,  and  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  good  living  in  the  social  class 
to  which  he  belongs ;  while  the  certainty  of  a  pension  hi 
case  of  misfortune  or  death  after  a  few  years  of  service, 
relieves  him  from  anxiety  for  the  future. 

Social  Position  in  Germany  depends  not  upon  wealth, 
but  upon  birth  and  official  position.  If,  by  dint  of  his  own 
industry  and  ability  and  the  self-denial  of  his  parents,  a 
man  attains  official  position  the  social  prestige  of  which  is 
higher  than  that  accorded  to  him  by  birth,  his  social 
position  is  determined  by  the  official  position,  although 
he  may  be  less  warmly  welcomed  by  his  associates  on  ac- 
count of  his  lower  birth.  If,  on  the  contrary,  his  social 
position  by  birth  is  higher  than  that  accorded  to  the 
official  class  of  which  he  is  a  member,  he  usually  has 
the  benefit  of  both,  a  possible  exception  being  made  of 
those  cases  in  which  the  social  class  in  which  he  is  born 
feels  itself  humiliated  by  the  official  service  in  which  he 
is  engaged.  The  social  position  of  the  higher  school 


1 88   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

teacher  is,  in  general,  simply  that  of  the  official  class  to 
which  he  belongs.  Socially,  as  well  as  financially,  it 
ranks  with  that  of  the  judges.  This  equality  was  ex- 
pressed tersely  by  a  prominent  school  director  who  said 
that  a  young  woman  would  marry  a  teacher  as  willingly 
as  a  judge,  —  a  very  significant  test  in  Germany.  Judges, 
clergymen,  higher  post-office  officials,  and  teachers  in 
the  higher  schools  are  social  comrades,  the  members  of 
each  group  having  had  approximately  the  same  amount 
of  training  for  their  work.  They  all  belong  to  the  lowest 
class  of  officials  into  which  the  Provinzial  Kollegium  is 
divided,  but  recognition  even  in  this  lowest  class  is  a  very 
important  matter,  since  it  secures  good  social  standing. 


CHAPTER  VI 

IMPRESSIONS  OF  THE  GERMAN  SYSTEM 

THE  German  system  of  training  teachers  for  the  higher 
schools  is  an  integral  part  of  a  complex  and  elaborate 
educational  system,  and  judgment  concerning  its  merits 
should  be  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  whole  organiza- 
tion. No  nation  has  a  more  clearly  defined  idea  of  the 
ends  of  education,  and  in  no  nation  will  be  found  more 
carefully  considered  means  for  the  attainment  of  those 
ends.  In  this  discussion  there  is  no  attempt  to  examine 
or  criticize  German  ideals,  but  only  to  record  impressions 
concerning  the  efficiency  of  the  German  methods  of  train- 
ing teachers  for  the  schools  in  which  those  ideals  are  being 
worked  out,  and  incidentally  to  suggest  the  adaptability  of 
some  parts  of  their  system  to  our  own  purposes.  The 
points  to  be  considered  are  the  general  academic  training 
in  the  higher  school  and  the  university,  the  pedagogical 
training  in  the  university,  the  state  examination  (Staats- 
examen),  the  Seminarjahr,  and  the  Prdbejahr. 

The  General  Academic  Training  of  the  higher 
school  teacher  is  excellent.  In  the  higher  school  he 
has  been  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  elements  of  many  sub- 

189 


TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

jects,  as  a  glance  at  the  programs  of  studies  for  these 
schools  shows.  Before  he  leaves  the  school,  in  most  cases, 
he  has  chosen  the  subjects  in  which  he  wishes  to  give 
instruction  when  he  becomes  a  teacher.  In  the  required 
three  years  at  the  university  he  has  had  an  opportunity 
for  scholarly  training  both  in  these  subjects  and  in  such 
others  as  he  may  elect.  He  may  even  proceed  to  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  before  taking  the  state 
examination  for  admission  to  the  Seminarjahr.  Although 
this  is  not  required,  an  increasingly  large  number  of  stu- 
dents do  it.  The  result  is  that  he  is  a  well-trained,  schol- 
arly, and  reasonably  mature  man  before  he  can  become  a 
candidate  for  the  position  of  teacher  in  the  higher  schools. 
He  has  had  time  and  opportunity  to  become  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  the  scholarly  life. 

Such  a  man  is  prepared  to  lecture  at  length  to  his 
pupils  upon  the  subjects  of  his  choice ;  indeed  it  would 
be  much  easier  for  him  to  do  this  than  to  do  the  teaching 
that  is  required  of  him  when  he  begins  his  course  of 
practical  training.  He  has  been  studying  the  abstrac- 
tions of  pure  mathematics,  let  us  say,  or  the  niceties  of 
comparative  philology ;  he  must  now  teach  arithmetic  and 
the  elements  of  language  to  nine-year-old  boys.  In  mak- 
ing this  transition,  however,  he  does  not  lose  the  power 
and  the  instincts  of  the  scholar.  These  remain  with  him 
to  give  strength  and  inspiration  for  every  day's  work. 
The  writer  has  seen  German  teachers  teaching  subject 


IMPRESSIONS    OF   THE   GERMAN    SYSTEM  191 

matter  which  seemed  very  heavy  for  the  grade  of  pupils 
concerned,  but  it  was  always  well  taught.  He  has  never 
seen  a  teacher  "  shooting  over  the  heads  "  of  pupils  simply 
because  he  was  a  scholarly  man.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
was  a  great  satisfaction  to  see  classroom  work  in  which 
the  teacher  gave  no  anxious  thought  to  the  subject  matter, 
but  had  his  whole  attention  fixed  upon  teaching  to  pupils 
that  which  was  to  him  perfectly  familiar.  The  American 
fear  that  a  man  may  know  too  much  to  be  a  good  second- 
ary school  teacher  does  not  prevail  in  Germany.  If  the 
danger  exists,  a  way  of  overcoming  it  seems  to  have  been 
found.  My  impression  is  that  the  superior  scholarship 
of  the  German  teacher  is  the  most  important  single  factor 
in  the  excellence  of  German  schools. 

Take,  for  example,  the  field  of  modern-language  teach- 
ing. The  ideal  of  the  schools  is  to  give  the  pupils  not 
only  a  reading  knowledge  but  also  an  elementary  speaking 
knowledge  of  the  language  studied  five  or  six  years  in 
school.  Under  no  circumstances  can  such  a  knowledge 
be  attained  except  from  a  teacher  who  knows  both  the 
written  and  the  spoken  language.  The  philological  train- 
ing of  German  students  is  always  thorough,  but  they  are 
now  required  to  add  to  this  a  speaking  knowledge  of  the 
language,  gained  by  at  least  six  months'  residence  in  a 
country  in  which  that  language  is  spoken,  or  they  must 
show  equal  proficiency  gained  in  some  other  way.  The 
impetus  to  foreign  language  teaching  given  by  such 


IQ2   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

instructors  is  tremendous.  They  not  only  learn  the  lan- 
guage, but  they  become  acquainted  to  some  extent  with  the 
spirit  of  the  people  whose  tongue  it  is,  —  a  very  important 
element  in  successful  language  teaching.  Under  their  in- 
struction the  language  is  "  moved,"  as  the  Germans  say, 
and  the  pupils  are  accustomed  from  the  beginning  to  assist 
in  the  operation.  The  language  studied  becomes  the 
language  of  the  classroom,  and  the  pupils  learn  the  com- 
mon idioms  of  speech  and  correct  pronunciation,  as  well 
as  the  significance  of  words  as  they  appear  on  the  printed 
page.  The  attainments  of  German  teachers  of  the  mod- 
ern languages  are  at  once  surprising  and  discouraging 
to  the  ordinary  American  modern-language  teacher,  and 
the  fundamental  basis  of  success  is  found  in  the  teacher's 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter. 

The  Theoretical  Pedagogical  Training  received  by  the 
student  in  the  German  university  is  a  rather  uncertain 
quantity.  Since  a  university  student  is  entirely  free  in 
his  choice  of  subjects,  his  interest  may  or  may  not  lead 
him  into  pedagogical  courses,  even  if  he  is  in  an  institu- 
tion in  which  such  courses  are  given.  Reference  to  the 
list  of  courses  in  education  offered  in  German  universities 
from  Easter,  1907,  to  Easter,  1910,  shows  that  the  oppor- 
tunities for  pedagogical  training  are  very  limited  in  some 
of  them.  In  several  cases  they  are  confined  to  philosophy, 
ethics,  and  general  psychology,  which  are  nearly  always 
given.  In  a  few  Institutions  educational  psychology  holds 


IMPRESSIONS   OF   THE   GERMAN   SYSTEM  193 

a  high  place.  The  most  common  course  in  pedagogy 
proper  is  that  in  the  history  of  pedagogy  and  pedagogical 
systems.  Courses  in  general  method  and  in  methods  of 
teaching  particular  subjects  are  occasionally  given,  and 
also  courses  in  gymnasial  pedagogy.  Courses  in  manage- 
ment and  in  the  sociological  phases  of  education  are 
almost  entirely  wanting,  probably  because  management 
is  so  largely  an  affair  of  school  administrators,  and 
because  the  study  of  sociological  problems,  outside  of  offi- 
cial circles,  has  not  yet  taken  a  deep  hold  on  German 
thought.  In  only  a  few  institutions  is  there  opportunity 
for  observation  and  practice  teaching  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  university  department  of  education.  The 
fact  that  the  student  must  be  examined  upon  philosophy 
and  pedagogy  will  probably  induce  him  to  take  at  least 
one  or  two  courses  in  these  subjects  as  well  as  in  psychol- 
ogy, but  the  number  of  courses  may  be  very  small  and  the 
work  elementary.  An  examination  of  the  reports  of  the 
candidates  in  the  seminarium  praceptorum  shows  that 
this  was  actually  the  case  in  several  instances.  In  general 
the  study  of  the  theory  of  education  in  the  university 
course  by  prospective  teachers  is  not  very  extensive,  and 
in  some  cases  more  would  certainly  be  desirable.  On  the 
whole  this  work  seems  not  superior  to  that  offered  in  many 
American  universities,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Ameri- 
can student  now  devotes  as  much  time  to  it  as  the 
German. 


194   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

The  State  Examination  has  for  its  purpose  testing  the 
attainments  of  the  student  on  the  scientific  or  purely 
academic  side  to  determine  whether  his  scholarship  is 
sufficient  and  of  such  a  character  as  to  make  him  a 
suitable  candidate  for  the  position  of  teacher  in  the  higher 
schools.  A  considerable  knowledge  of  religion,  the  Ger- 
man language  and  literature,  philosophy,  and  pedagogy 
is  thought  to  be  a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  of 
every  teacher,  and  this  is  tested  in  every  case  by  an  oral 
examination  and  by  a  thesis  which  is  supposed  to  indi- 
cate the  applicant's  power  to  think  and  to  express  his 
thoughts  systematically.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
thesis  he  is  permitted  to  use  books  freely,  but  he  is  re- 
quired to  sign  a  statement  that  he  has  received  no 
assistance  from  persons.  The  examination  in  the  sub- 
jects which  he  wishes  to  teach  is  much  more  severe. 
He  must  defend  his  thesis,  he  must  write  a  short  paper  on 
some  topic  assigned  at  the  beginning  of  the  three-hour 
period  permitted  for  it,  and  he  must  pass  an  oral  exami- 
nation before  the  committee  of  examiners.  In  all  of  its 
different  forms  the  examination  is  a  serious  and  dignified 
procedure  and  a  real  test  of  the  applicant's  ability  in 
various  directions.  It  gives  assurance  that  the  required 
three  years  at  the  university  have  not  been  spent  in  vain. 
It  tests  general  culture,  scholarly  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
cipal subjects,  ability  to  use  the  German  language  in  the 
systematic  expression  of  ideas,  and,  in  a  general  way,  the 


IMPRESSIONS   OF   THE   GERMAN   SYSTEM  195 

trend  of  the  candidate's  thought.  On  the  whole,  it  seems 
to  emphasize  the  important  things  and  to  contribute 
safety  and  dignity  to  the  profession. 

The  Semfnarfahr  is  the  keystone  in  the  arch  which 
binds  together  and  holds  hi  place  high  academic  scholar- 
ship on  the  one  side  and  thorough  pedagogical  training  on 
the  other.  It  is  the  most  modern  and  the  most  distinctive 
feature  of  the  German  system  of  training  teachers.  Be- 
fore its  establishment  in  1892,  the  teaching  in  German 
higher  schools  was  what  might  have  been  expected  from 
scholarly  men  with  a  minimum  of  theoretical  pedagogical 
training.  Since  its  introduction  the  practical  pedagogy 
of  the  higher  schools  has  greatly  improved.  The  Ger- 
mans themselves  feel  that  the  institution  is  still  in  its  in- 
fancy and  that  it  may  be  made  more  effective  with  experi- 
ence, but  in  general  they  have  great  faith  in  it.  It  was 
introduced  because  a  need  was  felt  for  better  professional 
training  than  was  afforded  by  the  academic  and  theoreti- 
cal pedagogical  work  of  the  university  and  by  the  trial 
teaching  of  the  Probejahr.  The  purpose  of  the  new  in- 
stitution is  to  combine  theoretical  and  practical  peda- 
gogical training  under  the  direction  of  a  practical  school- 
man of  long  and  successful  experience,  who  is  competent 
to  show  the  relation  between  theory  and  practice. 

The  members  of  the  seminar  constitute  in  themselves 
the  most  striking  factor  in  the  work  of  the  Seminarjahr. 
They  are  young  men,  usually  between  twenty-five  and 


196   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

thirty  years  old ;  they  are  scholarly,  capable,  ambitious, 
and  eager  for  admission  to  their  profession.  The  career 
upon  which  they  are  about  to  enter  is  an  honorable  one, 
and  it  will  afford  a  competence  for  themselves  and  their 
families.  They  have  but  to  prove  themselves  competent 
during  this  year  and  the  next,  and  the  doors  of  the  pro- 
fession swing  open  to  them  for  life.  They  must  succeed, 
however,  during  these  trial  years,  otherwise  they  miss  the 
goal  entirely.  They  have  every  incentive  to  become 
good  teachers  at  the  earliest  possible  moment,  and  they 
are  in  a  position  to  profit  greatly  by  the  training  which 
the  work  of  the  year  affords. 

The  ability  of  the  members  of  the  seminar  as  learners 
is  matched  by  that  of  the  directors  as  instructors.  They 
are  always  men  of  long  and  successful  experience,  and 
they  are  chosen  with  a  view  to  their  adaptability  to  this 
work.  They  are  university  trained  men  who  have  proved 
themselves  as  teachers  and  administrators,  and  some  of 
whom  have  won  distinction  through  their  writings.  In 
several  cases  they  are  professors  of  pedagogy  in  the 
universities  of  the  cities  in  which  they  live.  They  are 
practically  always  directors  of  higher  schools,  the  proper 
administration  of  which  is  their  chief  interest.  The 
candidates  are  enrolled  as  members  of  the  teaching  staff 
in  these  schools,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  directors  to 
make  of  them  the  best  possible  teachers.  The  work 
required  by  such  men  under  such  circumstances  may  be 


IMPRESSIONS   OF   THE   GERMAN   SYSTEM  197 

more  or  less  theoretical,  according  to  their  training  and 
inclination,  but  it  will  surely  be  practical.  The  candi- 
date must  reduce  his  theory  and  his  scholarship  to  actual 
practice  in  successful  teaching.  There  is  no  sharp  separa- 
tion between  theory  and  practice  as  there  may  be  when 
instruction  is  given  by  university  professors  who  have  no 
direct  acquaintance  with  the  practical  work  of  the  schools. 
These  directors  are  likely  to  be  fairly  well  informed  on 
pedagogical  theory,  and  that  theory  has  been  illuminated 
by  years  of  practical  experience.  They  are  at  liberty 
to  call  to  their  assistance  expert  teachers  of  the  subjects 
in  which  they  themselves  have  not  had  special  training, 
so  that  the  direction  of  the  seminar  work  is  always  in  the 
hands  of  scholarly,  expert,  practical  teachers. 

Candidates  and  directors  alike  bend  their  efforts  to- 
wards the  attainment  of  practical  results.  Considerable 
knowledge  of  pedagogical  theory  on  the  part  of  the  candi- 
dates may  fairly  be  assumed,  and  the  subject  is  further 
studied  and  discussed  in  the  weekly  meetings  of  the 
seminar,  but  the  largest  returns  come  through  the  actual 
teaching  of  the  candidates  under  close  supervision  and 
criticism  either  by  the  director  or  by  the  special  teacher  to 
whom  the  work  of  a  candidate  has  been  assigned.  They 
are  usually  given  the  lower  classes,  where  the  problem 
of  method  is  much  more  evident  than  it  is  in  the  higher 
classes.  It  is  real  teaching,  in  a  real  school,  under  normal 
conditions,  that  is  done  by  these  candidates  from  the 


198   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

beginning.  They  are  held  responsible  for  results,  not  for 
one  hour  only,  but  for  the  term  and  the  year.  They  are 
not  practicing,  they  are  teaching ;  the  pupils  are  not  be- 
ing practiced  upon,  they  are  being  taught.  The  value 
of  such  teaching  under  careful  criticism  is  infinitely  supe- 
rior as  a  means  of  training  to  an  occasional  hour  of  prac- 
tice teaching.  When  this  teaching  by  the  candidate  is 
supplemented  by  hours  of  observation  of  the  work  of 
other  teachers,  criticism  in  the  seminar  meetings  of  their 
work  and  his  own,  and  the  study  of  general  pedagogical 
theory  and  of  methods  of  teaching  particular  subjects, 
the  practical  training  seems  well-nigh  ideal.  The  candi- 
date learns  to  study  and  criticize  intelligently  his  own 
efforts,  and  he  forms  the  habit  of  making  the  work  of  each 
hour  as  effective  as  possible  from  the  standpoint  of  good 
teaching.  The  writer  can  think  of  no  better  means  for 
the  training  of  teachers  to  both  theoretical  alertness  and 
practical  efficiency  than  that  outlined  for  the  work  of 
the  Seminar jahr. 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  ideal  conditions  are  not  always 
found  in  the  real  seminar.  Candidates  lack  something 
and  do  not  succeed.  Directors  may  be  more  or  less  effi- 
cient, with  the  possibility  always  existing  that  the  work 
may  be  unduly  warped  by  individual  prejudice.  The 
directors  of  the  higher  schools  are  a  much  overworked 
body  of  men ;  the  duties  of  the  seminar  add  to  their  bur- 
dens, and  often  they  do  not  have  sufficient  time  to  devote 


IMPRESSIONS    OF   THE    GERMAN    SYSTEM  199 

to  the  needs  of  candidates.  Not  infrequently  the  teach- 
ing staff  is  so  limited  that  the  candidates  are  required 
to  teach  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  hours  per  week  from 
the  start,  thus  having  insufficient  time  for  observation,  for 
the  preparation  of  their  work,  and  for  professional  study. 
In  such  cases  the  director  and  the  other  teachers  are  likely 
to  be  very  busy  also,  and  consequently  the  teaching  done 
by  candidates  is  not  properly  supervised  and  criticized. 
They  are  left  too  much  to  their  own  resources.  The  scar- 
city of  teachers  in  recent  years  has  made  this  state  of 
affairs  somewhat  common,  to  the  regret  of  everybody 
concerned.  From  occasional  reports  the  writer  received 
the  impression  that  the  gymnasial  seminars  are  not 
always  as  effective  as  they  would  be  if  the  director  had 
sufficient  time  to  devote  to  the  instruction  of  candi- 
dates and  the  supervision  of  their  work,  and  if  the 
candidates  had  about  ten  hours  of  teaching  instead  of 
either  more  or  less.  It  occasionally  happens  that  the 
candidate  has  too  little  teaching  to  do,  even  less  than  five 
hours  per  week.  In  such  cases  he  is  likely  to  become 
restless  because  he  feels  that  he  is  simply  marking  time 
to  no  profit.  This  situation  is  as  unsatisfactory  as  the 
opposite.  Fortunately  each  seminar  director  is  given 
much  freedom  in  the  work  of  his  seminar,  and  it  is  reason- 
able to  expect  that  out  of  the  collective  experience  will 
ultimately  come  general  agreement  and  greater  wisdom 
in  the  conduct  of  the  work.  It  seemed  to  the  writer  that 


200   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

more  theoretical  pedagogical  work  might  be  expected 
of  students  in  the  university,  thus  leaving  more  time  for  a 
study  of  its  application  and  for  the  consideration  of  prac- 
tical pedagogy  hi  the  seminar.  Two  things  militate 
against  this  end  at  present:  the  principle  of  absolute 
freedom  hi  the  selection  of  university  courses,  and  the 
lack  of  opportunity  for  the  study  of  pedagogy  in  some  of 
the  universities.  When  the  gymnasial  seminars  were  first 
established,  it  was  feared  by  some  that  not  enough  com- 
petent schoolmen  could  be  found  to  act  as  directors. 
That  fear  seems  not  to  have  been  realized.  The  legal 
provision  that  a  seminar  may  be  discontinued  at  any  time 
or  removed  from  one  school  to  another  by  the  provincial 
school  board  is  a  safeguard  against  the  continuance 
of  a  seminar  in  the  hands  of  an  incompetent  director. 
Such  defects  as  now  exist  in  the  work  of  the  seminars  are 
due  mainly  to  conditions  over  which  the  directors  have 
no  control. 

The  Probejahr,  which  has  been  part  of  the  Prussian 
system  since  1826,  was  originally  designed  to  keep  candi- 
dates out  of  the  profession  until  they  had  demonstrated 
their  proficiency  by  actual  teaching.  It  was  a  year  of 
testing  rather  than  of  training.  Directors  were  officially 
urged  to  give  careful  supervision  to  the  work  of  these 
young  and  inexperienced  teachers,  but  no  express  pro- 
vision was  made  for  it,  and  the  multiplicity  of  other 
duties  prevented  its  effective  accomplishment.  The 


IMPRESSIONS   OF   THE   GERMAN   SYSTEM  2OI 

result  was  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  Probe- 
jahr  was  little  more  than  a  period  of  probation  in  which 
the  candidate,  without  any  particular  assistance  from 
others,  had  the  opportunity  to  demonstrate  his  teaching 
ability.  It  was  but  natural  that  this  should  be  regarded 
as  unsatisfactory  when  educators  began  to  think  carefully 
about  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  higher  schools. 
Since  the  introduction  of  the  Seminarjahr,  the  Probejahr 
has  remained  as  a  time  of  further  testing.  There  is  not  so 
much  emphasis  on  training,  since  the  candidate  is  usually 
not  required  to  attend  the  meetings  of  a  seminar  or  to 
follow  any  systematic  course  of  professional  study. 
However,  the  fact  that  he  must  make  a  written  report  at 
the  close  of  the  year  concerning  his  work,  and  the  knowl- 
edge that  the  work  of  this  year  is  an  important  factor  in 
making  up  his  final  record,  serve  to  keep  his  attention 
fixed  upon  the  professional  character  of  his  work,  and 
the  ultimate  result  is  a  considerable  amount  of  training. 
When  the  candidate  in  the  Probejahr  is  assigned  full  work, 
that  is,  twenty-four  hours  per  week,  and  is  paid  as  an 
assistant,  the  year  seems  to  serve  a  purpose  without 
being  a  burden ;  but  when  he  is  given  only  a  few  hours  of 
teaching  and  receives  little  or  no  pay,  he  is  likely  to  be- 
come restless,  and  with  good  reason.  The  writer  is  dis- 
posed to  share  the  opinion  of  a  considerable  number  of 
German  educators,  that,  if  the  work  of  the  Seminarjahr 
were  properly  ordered  and  the  time  of  the  candidates 


202   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

wisely  divided  between  theoretical  and  practical  studies, 
as  good  pedagogical  results  would  be  obtained  from  one 
year  of  training  as  are  now  secured  from  two,  and  the 
Probejahr  would  be  superfluous.  The  present  custom 
safeguards  the  profession  at  the  expense  of  the  individual 
candidate.  When  one  takes  into  consideration  the  sharp 
competition  for  place  in  Germany,  however,  and  the 
scrupulous  care  exercised  by  the  government  in  the 
selection  of  teachers,  it  is  easy  to  understand,  and  per- 
haps also  to  justify,  the  existing  requirement. 

Political,  social,  and  industrial  conditions  in  Germany 
are  very  different  from  those  in  the  United  States;  never- 
theless it  seems  to  the  writer  that  we  could  with  profit 
follow  Germany's  example  in  some  matters  relating  to 
the  training  of  teachers.  It  may  not  be  practicable  now 
to  require  as  high  general  academic  scholarship  of  the 
teachers  in  our  high  schools  as  is  required  of  the  teachers 
in  German  secondary  schools,  but  a  considerably  higher 
standard  than  now  prevails  is  both  desirable  and  feasible. 
The  theoretical  pedagogical  training  required  of  German 
teachers  is  not  too  much  to  ask  of  our  high  school  teachers, 
and  opportunities  for  securing  it  are  available  in  many 
American  universities.  We  may  well  look  towards  the 
ultimate  adoption  of  a  thorough  special  examination  for 
high  school  teachers,  an  examination  that  shall  give  both 
safety  and  dignity  to  the  calling.  Especially  should  we 
adapt  the  work  of  the  Seminarjahr  and  the  Probejahr  to 


IMPRESSIONS   OF   THE   GERMAN   SYSTEM  203 

our  needs.  We  either  already  have  or  we  are  rapidly  de- 
veloping facilities  in  our  colleges  and  universities  for 
the  instruction  of  candidates  hi  general  academic  subjects 
and  in  the  theory  of  education,  but  there  is  yet  lacking  an 
institution  that  does  the  work  of  the  German  gymnasial 
seminar.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  Seminarjahr 
and  the  Probejahr  cannot  be  taken  over  entire;  they 
would  have  to  be  modified  and  adapted  to  American  con- 
ditions. The  writer  believes  that  adaptation  may  be 
secured  by  a  combined  effort  of  the  high  schools  and  the 
pedagogical  departments  of  the  colleges  and  universities, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  latter.  A  plan  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  end  is  described  in  the  following 
chapters. 


PART  II 
THE  TRAINING   OF  AMERICAN  TEACHERS 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CERTIFICATION  OF  AMERICAN  TEACHERS 

IN  the  light  of  Germany's  past  experience  and  present 
practice  it  is  purposed  to  discuss  in  the  following  chap- 
ters the  training  of  teachers  for  American  secondary 
schools.  It  is  evident  that  the  conditions  under  which  the 
work  of  education  is  carried  on  in  the  two  countries  are 
very  different,  and  that  consequently  nothing  can  be  taken 
over  from  one  country  to  the  other  without  proper  adap- 
tation to  existing  conditions;  but  this  fact  should  not 
prevent  us  from  adapting  to  our  own  need  and  incorporat- 
ing into  our  own  educational  systems  those  elements 
which  they  do  not  now  possess,  but  which  have  proved 
themselves  eminently  satisfactory  in  the  German  system. 

The  Sphere  of  the  American  Secondary  School.  —  This 
discussion  assumes  the  sphere  of  the  secondary  school  to 
be  that  covered  by  a  four-year  program  of  studies,  follow- 
ing an  eight-year  elementary  school  course,  as  it  is  found 
in  the  ordinary  American  high  school.  Such  a  program 
provides  for  from  one  half  year  to  four  years  of  work 
in  each  of  several  selected  subjects.  The  list  of  subjects 
from  which  choice  is  made  includes  English,  Latin,  Greek, 

207 


208      TRAINING   OF    TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

German,  French,  advanced  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  drawing,  ancient,  medieval,  and  modern 
history,  history  of  the  United  States,  civil  government, 
economics,  physical  geography,  botany,  zoology,  biology, 
physics,  chemistry,  music,  stenography,  type-writing, 
bookkeeping,  commercial  geography,  commercial  law, 
manual  training  and  the  household  arts.  The  course 
covers  approximately  the  years  from  fourteen  to  eighteen, 
although  a  few  pupils  enter  before  fourteen  and  a  con- 
siderable number  remain  beyond  the  age  of  eighteen. 
The  discussion  would  apply  equally  well  if  the  entire 
course  of  study  were  reorganized  so  that  the  elementary 
school  and  the  high  school  would  have  six  years  each. 

The  Standards  of  Certification  of  high  school  teachers 
in  the  different  states  of  the  United  States  represent  wide 
difference  of  practice.  Before  the  year  1900  not  more 
than  a  half  dozen  states  possessed  a  legal  standard  of  cer- 
tification for  high  school  teachers  which  was  different 
from  that  required  of  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools. 
In  the  other  states  the  holder  of  any  certificate  of  any 
grade  was  legally  qualified  to  teach  in  the  high  school ; 
moreover,  in  nearly  half  of  the  states  this  is  true  at  the 
present  tune.  That  is  to  say,  only  recently  has  there 
been  any  legal  recognition  of  difference  between  the 
training  needed  for  the  teacher  in  the  elementary  school 
and  that  needed  for  the  teacher  in  the  high  school.  The 
minimum  qualifications  required  of  the  former  have  usu- 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      209 

ally  been  very  low,  even  for  the  elementary  school  work. 
They  were,  of  course,  even  less  satisfactory  for  the  high 
school. 

The  present  legal  requirements  for  the  certification 
of  teachers  in  the  different  states,  especially  those  en- 
acted since  1900,  show  a  tendency  to  differentiate  be- 
tween the  training  required  of  high  school  teachers  and 
that  required  of  elementary  school  teachers.  Such  pro- 
visions as  now  prevail  where  a  distinction  is  made  are 
given  in  brief  on  the  following  pages.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions they  are  interesting  as  indicating  the  present  low 
standards  and  the  steps  by  which  progress  is  effected, 
rather  than  as  expressing  any  satisfactory  permanent 
standards. 

Alabama.  —  "No  teacher  shall  be  eligible  to  teach  in  any  high 
school  established  under  the  provision  of  this  article,  unless  holding 
a  first-grade  or  life  certificate."  * 

"For  first-grade  certificates  they  shall  be  examined  in  all  the 
(common)  branches  and  also  in  algebra,  natural  philosophy, 
geometry,  the  school  laws  of  Alabama,  and  the  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching."  * 

A  life  certificate  may  be  granted  to  an  applicant  who  has  taught 
successfully  for  six  years  under  a  first-grade  certificate.5 

Arkansas.  —  "The  license  held  by  the  teacher  must  show  that 
the  holder  has  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  on  each  subject 
he  teaches."  4 

1  School  Laws  of  Alabama,  1908,  Sec.  1865,  p.  61.    Enacted  1908. 
'Ibid.,  Sec.  1734,  p.  25.  3 Ibid.,  Sec.  1741,  p.  27. 

4  Letter  from  office  of  State  Superintendent. 
P 


2IO      TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

California  stands  far  ahead  of  any  other  state  in  the  require- 
ments for  high  school  teachers,  and  therefore  they  are  given  in  full. 

"EXTRACTS  FROM  THE  POLITICAL  CODE  OF  CALIFORNIA 
"Section  1521.   The  powers  and  duties  of  the  State  Board  of 
Education  are  as  follows:  .  .  . 

"2.  (a)  To  prescribe  by  general  rule  the  credentials  upon  which 
persons  may  be  granted  certificates  to  teach  in  the  high  schools 
of  this  state.  No  credentials  shall  be  prescribed  or  allowed,  unless 
the  same,  in  the  judgment  of  said  board,  are  the  equivalent  of  a 
diploma  of  graduation  from  the  University  of  California,  and  are 
satisfactory  evidence  that  the  holder  thereof  has  taken  an  amount 
of  pedagogy  equivalent  to  the  minimum  amount  of  pedagogy 
prescribed  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  of  this  state,  and  in- 
clude a  recommendation  for  a  high  school  certificate  from  the  fac- 
ulty of  the  institution  in  which  the  pedagogical  work  shall  have 
been  taken. 

"  (b)  The  said  board  shall  also  consider  the  cases  of  individual 
applicants  who  have  taught  successfully  for  a  period  of  not  less 
than  twenty  school  months,  and  who  are  not  possessed  of  the  cre- 
dentials prescribed  by  the  board  under  the  provisions  of  this 
section.  The  said  board  in  its  discretion  may  issue  to  such  appli- 
cants special  credentials  upon  which  they  may  be  granted  cer- 
tificates to  teach  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state.  In  such  special 
cases,  the  board  may  take  cognizance  of  any  adequate  evidence 
of  preparation  which  the  applicants  may  present.  The  standard 
of  qualification  in  such  special  cases  shall  not  be  lower  than  that 
represented  by  the  other  credentials  named  by  the  board  under 
the  provisions  of  this  section. 

"Governing  Principles 

"The  State  Board  of  Education,  at  its  meeting  held  on  Decem- 
ber 4  and  5,  1905,  gave  thoughtful  consideration  to  the  question 
of  high  school  certification.  Upon  invitation  of  the  board  a  com- 


THE    CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      211 

mittee  of  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  California  was  present, 
and  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  matter  was  had,  and  as  a  result 
of  such  conference,  the  State  Board  of  Education  agreed  to  the 
following  governing  principles  as  expressing  their  interpretation 
of  the  powers  and  duties  conferred  upon  said  Board  by  Section 
1521  of  the  Political  Code,  in  reference  to  high  school  certification : 

"Four  things  are  the  evident  intent  of  the  law:  — 

"(a)  That  a  high  grade  of  both  academic  and  pedagogical 
efficiency  be  maintained,  the  State  University  being  taken  as  the 
academic  standard. 

"(b)  That  the  State  Board  of  Education  shall  be  the  sole  judge 
of  the  professional  standards  to  be  maintained,  and  of  the  equiva- 
lence of  credentials  to  University  of  California  standards. 

"(c)  That  nothing  in  the  standards  set  by  the  general  regu- 
lations of  the  board  shall  unjustly  prevent  the  certification  of  fit 
individuals  who  cannot  technically  meet  the  requirements  of  such 
rules. 

"(d)  That  no  state  institution,  or  set  of  state  institutions,  as 
such,  shall  be  permitted  to  control  secondary  certification.  The 
aim  is  squarely  the  efficiency  of  the  secondary  teaching  service. 
The  responsible  judge  and  authority  is  the  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. 

"Minimum  Amount  of  Pedagogy 

"The  minimum  amount  of  pedagogy  which  Section  1521,  sub- 
division 2  (a)  of  the  Political  Code,  directs  the  State  Board  of 
Education  to  prescribe,  is  hereby  declared  to  be  as  follows :  — 

"Satisfactory  completion  of  courses,  suitable  and  essential  to 
requiring  efficient  skill  in  teaching  and  an  intelligent  comprehen- 
sion of  the  scope,  and  the  attainable  goals  in  high  school  instruc- 
tion ;  said  courses  to  be  equivalent  to  not  less  than  twelve  hours 
per  week  for  one  hah"  year ;  provided  that  at  least  one  third  of 
this  work  shall  consist  of  practical  teaching  under  the  direction 
of  supervising  instructors  of  academic  competency  and  breadth 


212   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

of  pedagogic  comprehension  who  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  two 
years  have  taught  the  subjects  in  which  they  supervise. 

"The  State  Board  of  Education  is  not  authorized  by  Section 
1521  to  specify  institutions  in  which  this  prescribed  pedagogy 
may  be  taken,  but  as  standards  of  equivalents  the  certificate  from 
any  institution  belonging  to  the  Association  of  American  Uni- 
versities, or  from  any  California  State  normal  school,  or  their 
recognized  equivalents,  may  be  accepted,  provided  that  the  recom- 
mendation of  applicants  by  faculties  of  institutions  in  which  the 
pedagogical  courses  are  pursued  attests  that  the  requirements 
above  stated  have  been  fulfilled. 

"  Rules  for  the  Granting  of  High  School  Certificates 

"In  pursuance  of  the  above-mentioned  principles,  the  State 
Board  of  Education  has  formulated  the  following  rules  for  the 
granting  of  high  school  certificates :  — 

"  i.  High  school  certificates  may  be  issued  under  the  provisions 
of  Section  1521,  subdivision  2  (a),  and  Section  1775,  subdivision  i 
(a),  of  the  Political  Code  of  California,  as  follows :  — 

"a.  To  candidates  who  have  received  the  bachelor's  degree 
from  a  college  requiring  not  less  than  eight  years  of 
high  school  and  college  training,  and  who  submit 
evidence  that  in  addition  to  the  courses  required 
for  the  bachelor's  degree  they  have  successfully 
completed  at  least  one  year  of  graduate  study 
in  a  university  belonging  to  the  Association  of 
American  Universities;  which  year  of  graduate 
study  shall  include  one  half  year  of  advanced 
academic  study  (part  of  the  time,  at  least,  being 
devoted  to  one  or  more  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the 
high  school),  and  such  other  time  in  a  well  equipped 
training  school  of  secondary  grade  directed  by  the 
Department  of  Education  of  any  one  of  the  univer- 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      213 

si  ties  of  the  association,  as  may  be  necessary  to  fulfill 
the  pedagogical  requirements  prescribed  by  this  board . 
"b.  To  candidates  who  have  received  the  bachelor's 
degree  from  a  college  requiring  not  less  than  eight 
years  of  high  school  and  college  training,  and  who 
submit  evidence  that  hi  addition  to  the  courses 
required  for  the  bachelor's  degree  they  have  suc- 
cessfully completed  at  least  one  hah"  year  of  gradu- 
ate study  in  a  university  belonging  to  the  Asso- 
ciation of  American  Universities ;  which  half  year 
of  graduate  study  shah"  consist  of  advanced  aca- 
demic study  (part  of  the  time  at  least  being  devoted 
to  one  or  more  of  the  subjects  taught  hi  the  high 
school) ;  and  six  months  as  student  teachers  in  a  well- 
equipped  school  of  secondary  grade  directed  by  a  Cal- 
ifornia state  normal,  or  its  recognized  equivalent, 
under  conditions  conforming  to  the  requirements 
prescribed  by  this  board  as  the  minimum  amount 
of  pedagogy. 

"2.  In  lieu  of  the  pedagogical  training  above  prescribed,  candi- 
dates may  submit  evidence  showing  that  they  are  graduates  of  a 
California  state  normal  school,  or  other  normal  school  officially 
recognized  by  this  board  as  of  equivalent  rank,  or  have  taught 
with  decided  success  as  regular  teachers  or  as  principals  at  least 
twenty  months  in  any  reputable  school,  elementary  or  secondary ; 
and  provided  that  until  further  notice,  the  practical  teaching  pre- 
scribed may  have  been  pursued  in  schools  of  grammar  or  secondary 
grade  in  connection  with  a  California  state  normal  school,  or  under 
the  direction  of  the  Department  of  Education  of  the  University 
of  California  or  of  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  as  evidenced 
by  a  certificate  of  proficiency."  1 

Colorado.  —  "If  the  applicant  is  to  teach  in  a  school  of  high 

1  Bulletin  No.  99,  California  Department  of  Education,  August, 
1906,  p.  47. 


214       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

grade,  the  examination  shall  extend  to  such  additional  branches 
of  study  (beyond  the  common  school  branches)  as  are  to  be  pur- 
sued in  such  school."  l 

"In  first-class  districts,  the  school  board  may  employ  high 
school  teachers  without  examination,  if  they  give  evidence  of  ade- 
quate training  for  the  work  they  are  to  do.  In  all  other  dis- 
tricts, applicants  for  high  school  positions  are  required  to  take  the 
regular  county  examination  and  in  addition  be  examined  in  the 
subjects  they  expect  to  teach  in  the  high  school."  * 

Connecticut.  —  "The  board  of  school  visitors  or  town  com- 
mittee" shall  "examine  all  candidates  for  teachers  hi  such  (high) 
schools,  and  give  to  those  of  satisfactory  moral  character,  literary 
attainments,  and  ability  to  teach,  a  certificate  stating  what 
branches  they  are  capable  of  teaching."  3 

District  of  Columbia.  —  "No  person  without  a  degree  from  an 
accredited  college,  or  a  graduation  certificate  from  an  accredited 
normal  school,  such  normal  school  graduate  to  have  had  at  least 
five  years  of  experience  as  a  teacher  in  a  high  school,  shall  hereafter 
be  appointed  to  teach  any  academic  or  scientific  subjects  in  the 
normal,  high,  and  manual  training  schools  ;  provided,  that  no 
such  teacher  in  the  normal,  high,  and  manual  training  schools, 
or  teacher  of  special  studies  shall  be  appointed  until  he  shall  have 
passed  an  examination  prescribed  by  the  boards  of  examiners 
hereinafter  provided  for."  4 

Florida.  —  "Under  a  regulation  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion the  principal  of  a  senior  high  school  must  be  the  holder  of  a 
state  certificate,  and  the  principal  of  a  rural  graded  school  or  junior 
high  school  must  be  the  holder  of  a  first-grade  certificate."  * 

1  School  Laws,  1909,  Sec.  5991,  p.  96. 

1  Circular  letter  from  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 

1  School  Laws,  1908,  Sec.  67,  p.  22. 

4  Rules  and  By-laws  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  1907,  p.  17. 

s  Letter  from  William  M.  Holloway,  State  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      21$ 

Indiana  has  four  forms  of  high  school  license.  The  follow- 
ing provisions  concerning  it  are  made  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education. 

"  (a)  Twelve  Months.  —  Valid  to  teach  the  subjects  desig- 
nated in  any  public  high  school  of  the  state  for  a  period  of  twelve 
months.  The  eligibility  and  grade  requirements  are  precisely 
the  same  as  for  a  twelve  months  common  school. 

"The  subjects  are :  Latin,  German,  French,  Spanish,  literature 
and  composition,  history  and  civics,  physical  geography,  commer- 
cial geography,  zoology,  botany,  physics,  chemistry,  commercial 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  bookkeeping,  and  stenography. 
From  this  list  the  applicant  selects  the  subjects  he  expects  to 
teach.  An  applicant  may  have  a  license  if  he  makes  the  required 
grades  and  average  on  a  majority  of  the  subjects  attempted.  In 
all  literature  examinations  the  manuscript  is  graded  from  o  to  75 
on  correctness  of  answers  and  from  o  to  25  on  the  quality  of  Eng- 
lish used. 

"(b)  Twenty-four  Months.  —  Valid  to  teach  the  subjects  desig- 
nated in  any  public  high  school  of  the  state  for  a  period  of  twenty- 
four  months.  The  eligibility  and  grade  requirements  are  precisely 
the  same  as  for  a  twenty-four  months'  common  school.  To  secure 
this  license  the  applicant  must  pass  successfully  in  five  or  more  of 
the  subjects  named  in  (a). 

"  (c)  Thirty-six  Months.  —  Valid  to  teach  the  subjects  desig- 
nated in  any  public  high  school  of  the  state  for  a  period  of  thirty- 
six  months.  The  eligibility  and  grade  requirements  are  precisely 
the  same  as  for  a  thirty-six  months'  common  school.  To  secure 
this  license  the  applicant  must  pass  successfully  in  five  or  more  of 
the  subjects  designated  in  (a). 

"  (d)  Sixty  Months.  —  Valid  to  teach  the  common  branches 
in  any  public  school  of  the  state  and  the  designated  high  school 
subjects  in  any  public  high  school  of  the  state  for  a  period  of  sixty 
months.  The  eligibility  requirements  are  the  same  as  for  a  thirty- 
six  months'  common  school. 


2l6   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

"The  examination  for  this  license  is  taken  in  two  divisions. 
The  First  Division  is  upon  the  common  branches.  The  grade  and 
average  requirements  are  the  same  as  for  a  thirty-six  months' 
license.  No  license  is  issued  upon  first-division  results.  The 
Second  Division  includes  the  high  school  subjects.  These  are  ar- 
ranged in  five  groups  with  requirements  as  indicated. 

"I.  Literature  and  composition  (required). 
"II.  Algebra  or  geometry  (one  required). 
"III.  Botany,  zoology,  chemistry,  physics,  or  physical  geography 

(one  required). 
"IV.  History  and  civics,  Latin,   German,   French,  or  Spanish 

(one  required). 

"  V.  One  subject  not  already  taken,  to  be  selected  from  II,  III, 
IV. 

"Five  subjects  selected  as  above  are  required.  The  applicant 
may  if  he  chooses  pass  upon  additional  high  school  subjects  and 
have  them  properly  entered  upon  the  license.  Upon  the  high 
school  subjects  the  average  must  be  85  per  cent  with  no  grade 
below  75  per  cent.  Both  divisions  must  be  taken  in  one  calendar 
year.  An  applicant  who  fails  on  the  second  division  may  at  the 
end  of  the  year  receive  a  license  upon  the  first  division,  provided 
the  grades  warrant  it."  l 

Kansas.  —  "The  board  of  trustees  (of  a  county  high  school) 
shall  appoint  some  competent  person  who,  with  the  principal  of  the 
high  school,  and  with  the  county  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion as  chairman  thereof,  shall  constitute  the  examining  commit- 
tee of  the  high  school,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  examine  all  persons 
who  may  apply  to  them  in  the  subjects  such  persons  propose  to 
teach  in  said  high  school;  and  no  person  except  one  holding  a 
diploma  or  a  certificate  from  the  State  Board  of  Education,  or  a 

1  Notes  on  Indiana  Teachers'  Licenses,  1910,  by  R.  J.  Aley,  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 


THE    CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      217 

diploma  from  the  State  Normal  School,  State  University,  State 
Agricultural  College,  or  some  college  or  university  accredited  by  the 
State  Board  of  Education,  shall  be  employed  by  the  board  of  trus- 
tees as  a  teacher  in  the  high  school,  unless  such  person  is  the  holder 
of  a  certificate  signed  by  the  examining  committee,  or  a  majority 
of  them,  setting  forth  that  such  person  is  competent  to  teach  such 
subjects  in  said  high  school,  and  is  a  person  of  good  moral  charac- 
ter." ' 

"  The  above  statement  represents  only  the  law  relative  to  the 
granting  of  certificates  to  teachers  of  county  high  schools.  It  is 
the  only  certificate,  however,  that  is  issued  exclusively  for  high 
schools.  All  county  certificates  and  state  certificates  are  valid  high 
school  certificates  within  the  territory  over  which  they  extend. 
Cities  having  over  2000  inhabitants  and  other  cities  having  ten  or 
more  teachers  may  provide  their  own  standards  for  the  issuance  of 
certificates,  and  in  those  cases  they  fix  a  separate  standard  for  high 
school  teachers,  and  issue  high  school  certificates." 2 

Minnesota.  —  "The  principal  and  all  other  teachers  in  the 
high  school  are  to  hold  first-grade  professional  certificates,  either 
upon  diploma  or  by  examination." 

"The  subjects  for  professional  examination  are :  — 

"I.  Educational  science,  — general  pedagogy,  history  of  educa- 
tion, psychology,  school  organization  and  law. 
"II.  Mathematics, — higher  algebra,  solid  geometry,  and  trigo- 
nometry. 
"III.  English,  —  American    literature,    English    literature,    and 

rhetoric. 
"IV.  History,  —  ancient  history,  medieval  and  modern  history, 

English  history,  and  American  history. 

"  V.  Science,  —  astronomy,    botany,    chemistry,    geology    and 
physiography,  physics,  political  science,  and  zoology. 

1  School  Laws,  1909,  chap.  VII,  Sec.  161.     Enacted  1907. 
J  Letter  from  State  Superintendent  E.  T.  Fairchild. 


2l8   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

"  For  a  first-grade  professional  certificate,  the  applicant,  after 
having  secured  a  first-grade  common  school  certificate,  must 
pass  in  all  the  branches  headed  Educational  Science;  two  of  those  in 
Mathematics;  two  of  those  in  English;  three  of  those  in  History; 
three  of  those  in  Science  — fourteen  branches  in  all."  * 

Montana.  —  "No  person  shall  be  employed  as  a  teacher  in  high 
school,  or  as  the  principal  teacher  of  a  school  of  more  than  two 
departments,  who  is  not  the  owner  of  a  professional  county  certifi- 
cate or  the  holder  of  a  life  or  state  diploma  issued  by  the  State 
Board  of  Education  of  the  state  of  Montana,  or  who  is  not  a 
graduate  of  some  reputable  university,  college,  or  normal  school."2 

Nebraska.  — "Section  17.  High  School  Teachers,  Qualifications. 
On  and  after  September  i,  1907,  no  person  shall  be  granted  a  certifi- 
cate to  teach  in  the  high  school  department  of  any  high  school  dis- 
trict in  this  state  who  is  not  a  graduate  from  a  regular  four-year 
course  of  a  college  or  university,  or  a  graduate  from  the  advanced 
course  of  a  college,  university,  or  normal  school  in  this  state  author- 
ized by  law  to  grant  teachers'  certificates,  or  who  does  not  hold  a 
professional  state  certificate  obtained  from  the  state  superintendent 
on  examination  before  him  or  a  committee  appointed  by  him  as 
provided  by  law."  3 

Nevada.  —  "It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  County  Board  of  Edu- 
cation to  ...  employ  teachers  (for  county  high  schools)  holding 
Nevada  state  certificates  of  the  high  school  grade  hi  full  force  and 
effect."  4 

"The  high  school  certificate,  good  for  four  years,  shall  entitle 
the  holder  to  teach  in  any  school,  and  shall  be  issued  upon  satisfac- 
tory examination  in  all  the  subjects  mentioned  in  Sections  15  and 

1  Circular  of  Information  Relating  to  Examinations,  Certificates,  and 
the  Employment  of  Teachers.  Issued  by  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,  June,  1908. 

1  School  Laws,  1909,  Sec.  968,  p.  134.    Enacted  1897. 

*  School  Laws,  1907,  p.  59.    Enacted  1905. 

*  School  Laws,  1909,  chap.  VIII,  Sec.  7,  p.  55.    Law  enacted  1909. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      2IQ 

16  of  this  Act  (common  school  branches,  algebra,  the  first  and 
second  books  of  plane  geometry,  English,  history,  bookkeeping, 
physical  geography,  physics,  chemistry,  and  methods  of  teaching), 
and  in  addition  thereto,  botany,  Latin,  general  history,  English  lit- 
erature, plane  geometry,  astronomy,  rhetoric,  civil  government,  and 
the  history  and  methods  of  teaching."  l 

New  Hampshire.  —  "  There  is  no  requirement  under  the  law 
for  the  various  certificates,  but  the  State  Department  of  Public 
Instruction  has  made  regulations  for  these  certificates  which  it 
has  the  right  to  do.  At  the  present  writing  there  are  three  grades 
of  certificates  issued." 2 

HIGH  SCHOOL  CERTIFICATE.  —  "  Candidates  must  present  satis- 
factory evidence  of  education  adequate  to  prepare  them  for  the 
work  of  the  grade  for  which  the  certificate  is  asked. 

"  They  will  present  themselves  for  examination  in  the  following 
groups  of  subjects :  — 

"  I.  History  of  education,  psychology,  pedagogy,  the  school  law 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  school  management  with  special 
reference  to  the  problems  of  the  adolescent  period. 

"H.  English  literature,  including  American  authors;  English 
grammar  and  the  principles  of  rhetoric ;  composition  — 
to  be  determined  by  the  general  character  of  papers ;  either 
Latin,  Greek,  French,  or  German ;  either  physics,  chemistry, 
or  biology;  algebra  through  quadratic  equations;  plane 
geometry;  history  of  the  United  States  and  the  history 
of  either  Greece  and  Rome,  medieval  and  modern  Europe, 
or  England ;  and  civil  government. 

"  III.  An  examination  to  test  special  proficiency  in  one  of  the  follow- 
ing departments  of  study  at  the  election  of  the  candidate : 
the  English  language  and  literature ;  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages  and  literatures;  the  French  and  German  lan- 

1  School  Laws,  1909,  chap.  II,  Sec.  17,  p.  19. 

*  Letter  from  office  of  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 


220   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

guages  and  literatures;   history;   physics  and  chemistry; 
biology;  mathematics;  or  commerce. 

"  Probationary  certificates  valid  for  one  year  from  the  date  thereof 
will  be  granted  to  those  candidates  who  attain  a  general  average 
of  70  per  cent  and  do  not  fall  below  50  per  cent  in  any  subject. 
Candidates  for  such  certificates  may  omit  the  third  part  of  the 
examination. 

"  Candidates  who  present  required  evidence  of  graduation  from 
a  registered  college  or  institution  of  collegiate  degree  will  be  exempt 
from  examination  in  Group  II. 

"  Candidates  for  secondary  certificates  will  be  allowed  to  file 
certificate  of  college  standing  in  advanced  courses  of  a  registered 
college  in  lieu  of  examination  in  subjects  of  Group  III." l 

North  Carolina.  —  "The  board  of  examiners,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  shall  exam- 
ine all  teachers  who  apply  to  the  State  Superintendent  for  a  high 
school  teacher's  certificate,  and  said  examination  shall  be  con- 
ducted in  the  same  manner  as  the  examination  for  state  certifi- 
cates." * 

"All  teachers  in  high  schools  (176  rural)  must  hold  the  high 
school  teacher's  certificate  from  the  State  Board  of  Examiners."  * 

North  Dakota.  —  "The  superintendent,  high  school  principal, 
and  assistants  in  high  schools  of  the  first  class  and  of  the  second 
class  shall  hold  the  B.A.  or  equivalent  degree  from  some  college 
or  university  of  recognized  standards.  Exceptions  may,  in  special 
cases,  be  made  by  the  high  school  board,  but  the  superintendent, 
high  school  principal,  and  assistants  shall,  in  cases  above  excepted, 
be  duly  qualified  by  holding  state  life  professional  certificates. 
The  high  school  board  is  always  to  be  the  judge  of  evidence  upon 

1  Abstract  of  Regulations  governing  State  Examination  and  Certifi- 
cation of  Teachers  in  the  Public  Schools. 

1  The  Public  School  Law  of  North  Carolina,  1909,  p.  68,  Sec.  4162. 
1  Communication  from  the  office  of  the  State  Superintendent. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      221 

which  to  make  exception.  Further,  the  principal  of  a  third-class 
high  school,  if  not  the  holder  of  a  B.A.  degree  or  an  equivalent 
degree  or  a  life  professional  certificate,  shall  be  a  graduate  of  some 
normal  school  of  recognized  standards,  or  shall  have  completed 
at  least  one  half  of  the  course  for  the  bachelor's  degree  in  some 
college  or  university  of  recognized  standards  and  shall  present 
satisfactory  credentials  to  the  high  school  board." l 

Ohio.  —  "No  person  shall  be  employed  or  enter  upon  the  per- 
formance of  his  duties  as  a  teacher  in  any  recognized  high  school 
supported  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  state  in  any  village,  township, 
or  special  school  district,  or  act  as  a  superintendent  of  schools  in 
such  district,  who  has  not  obtained  from  a  board  of  examiners 
having  legal  jurisdiction  a  certificate  of  good  moral  character; 
that  he  or  she  is  qualified  to  teach  literature,  general  history, 
algebra,  physics,  physiology  including  narcotics,  and,  hi  addition 
thereto,  four  branches  elected  from  the  following  branches  of 
study:  Latin,  German,  rhetoric,  civil  government,  geometry,  physical 
geography,  botany,  and  chemistry ;  and  that  he  or  she  possesses 
an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching 
(R.  S.  Sec.  4074)-"  2 

Oregon.  —  "All  teachers  employed  in  high  schools  organized 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Act  [the  law  refers  to  district,  county 
and  union  high  schools]  shall  be  graduates  of  the  state  normal 
schools  of  this  state,  graduates  of  some  institution  of  collegiate  or 
university  grade,  or  shall  be  the  holder  of  a  state  certificate  or 
diploma."  3 

"The  examination  for  state  certificates  and  state  diplomas  shall 
be  upon  questions  prepared  by  the  state  board  of  examiners ;  said 
questions  shall  be  based  upon  the  textbooks  adopted  by  the  state, 

1  Manual  of  the  High  School  Board  of  North  Dakota,  1909,  p.  u. 
*  School  Laws,  1910,  p.  139,  Sec.  7831. 

3  School Lawsof  Oregon,  1907,  Sec.  233  and  253,  pp.  109, 121.  Enacted 
1903. 


222       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

and  shall  cover  all  the  branches  required  for  a  first-grade  county 
certificate,  and,  in  addition  thereto,  algebra,  bookkeeping,  composi- 
tion, physical  geography,  physics,  and  psychology ;  those  for  state 
diplomas,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  botany,  plane  geometry,  gen- 
eral history,  and  English  literature.  Examinations  for  state  cer- 
tificates and  state  diplomas  shall  be  conducted  in  accordance  with 
the  rules  and  regulations  adopted  by  the  State  Board  of  Education, 
consistent  with  the  laws  of  the  state.  A  state  certificate  shall  au- 
thorize the  holder  thereof  to  teach  in  any  public  school  in  the  state 
for  five  years  thereafter,  and  the  state  diploma  shall  confer  a  like 
authority  for  life.  State  certificates  shall  be  granted  to  such  appli- 
cants only  who  have  had  thirty  months'  teaching  experience  with 
approved  success,  at  least  nine  of  which  shall  be  hi  the  schools  of 
Oregon,  and  who  shall  make  an  average  of  85  per  cent  in  all  the 
branches  herein  prescribed  and  shall  not  fall  below  70  per  cent 
in  any  one  branch.  State  diplomas  shall  be  granted  to  such 
applicants  only  as  have  had  at  least  sixty  months'  teaching 
experience  with  approved  success,  fifteen  of  which  shall  have  been 
hi  the  schools  of  Oregon,  and  shall  have  made  an  average  of  85  per 
cent  hi  all  the  branches  herein  prescribed,  and  shall  not  fall  below 
70  per  cent  in  any  one  branch.  Any  applicant  for  a  state  cer- 
tificate or  a  state  diploma  who  shall  attain  the  required  percent- 
ages in  one  or  more  of  the  designated  branches,  but  shall  fail 
in  one  or  more  of  such  branches,  shall  be  credited  with  such 
required  percentages,  and  shah1  be  allowed  to  complete  the  ex- 
aminations in  the  remaining  branches  at  the  two  following 
examinations,  and  shall  then  receive  a  state  certificate  or  state 
diploma,  in  accordance  with  the  result  of  all  the  examinations."  l 
Pennsylvania.  —  "  CXII.  The  directors  or  controllers  of  every 
district  receiving  aid  in  accordance  with  section  four  of  this  act, 
shall  employ  for  said  high  school  at  least  one  teacher  legally  cer- 
tified to  teach  bookkeeping,  civics,  general  history,  algebra,  geom- 
etry, trigonometry,  including  plane  surveying,  rhetoric,  English 
1  School  Laws,  1907,  Art.  II,  Sec.  6,  pp.  5,  Code  3348. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      223 

literature,  Latin,  including  Caesar,  Vergil,  and  Cicero,  and  the 
elements  of  physics,  chemistry,  including  the  chemistry  of  soils, 
botany,  geology,  and  zoology,  including  entomology,  and  no 
teacher  shall  be  employed  to  teach  any  branch  or  branches  of 
learning  other  than  those  enumerated  in  his  or  her  certificate."  l 

Rhode  Island.  —  "In  Rhode  Island  there  are  no  state  legal 
requirements  for  high  school  teachers  different  from  that  of  ele- 
mentary school-teachers.  It  is  true,  however,  that  by  general 
understanding  our  first-grade  certificate  is  a  high  school  certificate. 
There  are  very  few  teachers  in  our  Rhode  Island  high  schools  who 
do  not  hold  such  a  certificate.  To  obtain  this  certificate  one  must 
be  a  graduate  of  an  approved  college,  and  must  possess  professional 
qualifications.  Professional  qualifications  are  determined  by  an 
examination  in  history  of  education,  psychology,  philosophy  of 
education,  school  management,  methodology,  school  hygiene, 
and  school  law.  Certificates  of  graduation  or  of  completion  of 
certain  courses  in  approved  normal  schools  or  education  depart- 
ments of  colleges  are  accepted  as  evidence  of  professional  quali- 
fications in  lieu  of  an  examination.  It  is  also  probable  that  before 
long  a  special  high  school  certificate  will  be  required  for  teaching 
in  high  schools.  That  will  mean  little  more  than  making  a  legal 
requirement  of  that  which  is  in  general  practice." 2 

South  Dakota.  —  "A  high  school  teacher  must  be  the  holder  of 
a  state  certificate  or  life  diploma." 3 

"  The  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction  will  grant  life 
diplomas;  First:  to  applicants  who  shall  pass  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  reading,  orthography,  penmanship,  arithmetic, 
geography,  grammar,  composition,  United  States  history,  South 
Dakota  history,  physiology  and  hygiene,  civics,  physical  geography, 
physics,  algebra,  geometry,  and  general  history,  all  of  the  pre- 
college  grade;  in  English  language  and  rhetoric,  English  and 

1  School  Laws  and  Decisions,  1909,  p.  54,  CXII.     Enacted  1895. 
J  Letter  from  Commissioner  Walter  E.  Ranger. 
1  Letter  from  State  Superintendent  H.  A.  Ustrud. 


224       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

American  literature,  either  economics  or  sociology,  any  two  of 
botany,  zoology,  physiology,  physics,  chemistry,  Latin,  German, 
geology  and  mineralogy,  astronomy,  algebra,  trigonometry,  all  of 
the  college  grade ;  and  in  pedagogy,  including  principles,  method, 
management,  psychology,  and  history  of  education. 

"  Possessors  of  first-grade  certificates,  issued  by  State  Educational 
departments,  may  submit  corresponding  standings  on  them  for  the 
subjects  italicized  in  lieu  of  examination,  if  the  grades  in  such 
subjects  average  90  per  cent  with  no  grade  below  75  per  cent,  and 
were  awarded  by  a  state  board  of  examiners. 

"  Candidates  for  this  credential  are  required  to  notify  the  De- 
partment of  Education,  three  months  in  advance  of  the  examina- 
tion, stating  the  subjects  they  have  selected  where  alternatives 
are  offered. 

"  Evidence  of  at  least  forty  months'  experience  and  good  moral 
character  is  required.  Examination  is  offered  in  March  and  August. 

"  Second :  to  applicants  who  are  graduates  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity of  South  Dakota,  or  of  any  other  approved  college,  having  a 
course  of  study  wherein  four  years'  work  above  an  approved  high 
school  course  of  four  years  is  required  for  graduation.  If  the 
applicant  has  in  his  college  course  pursued  one  course  of  pedagogi- 
cal studies  and  professional  training  comprising  at  least  one  fourth 
work  during  at  least  eighteen  months.  If  the  candidate  is  short  on 
pedagogy,  the  condition  may  be  removed  by  examination. 

"  The  applicant  must  file  with  the  department  a  copy  of  the 
diploma  of  graduation,  copy  of  the  course  of  study,  specifically 
showing  the  amount  of  class  work  and  standing  secured  hi  each 
subject  for  the  entire  course,  all  duly  certified  by  the  proper  officer 
of  the  institution  where  subjects  were  pursued.  The  candidate  must 
show  a  record  of  forty  months'  successful  experience  as  a  teacher. 

"  Third :  to  applicants  who  are  graduates  of  the  normals  of  this 
state  or  other  normals  where  a  course  of  study  of  at  least  two  years 
beyond  an  approved  high  school  course  of  four  years  is  required. 
The  applicant  must  file  with  the  department  certified  copies  of 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      22$ 

diploma,  course  of  study,  outline  of  work,  and  standing  secured 
in  each  subject  as  in  "two"  above.  Evidence  of  forty  months' 
successful  teaching  experience  must  be  submitted. 

"  The  law  requires  a  fee  of  ten  dollars  from  all  applicants  except 
graduates  of  the  institutions  of  this  state. 

"  The  department  will  validate  credentials  of  this  class,  issued  by 
other  state  departments  on  equivalent  requirements,  but  prefers 
that  such  applicants  work  in  South  Dakota  for  at  least  one  year 
on  a  state  certificate. 

"  State  certificates,  good  for  five  years,  are  renewable,  and  will 
issue ;  first :  to  applicants  who  shall  pass  satisfactory  examina- 
tion in  reading,  orthography,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  geography, 
grammar,  physiology  and  hygiene,  United  States  history,  South 
Dakota  history,  civics,  American  literature,  drawing,  algebra,  plane 
geometry,  physical  geography,  physics  or  botany,  general  history, 
pedagogy,  English  language,  composition  and  rhetoric,  provided 
that  possessors  of  first-grade  certificates  issued  by  state  depart- 
ments of  education  may  submit  corresponding  standings  of  such 
first-grade  certificates  in  lieu  of  examination  in  subjects  italicized, 
provided  that  such  standings  average  90  per  cent  with  no  grade 
below  75  per  cent,  and  also  provided  that  the  grades  were  awarded 
by  a  state  board  of  examiners  and  not  by  local  authorities.  Appli- 
cants must  submit  evidence  of  at  least  twenty-four  months'  suc- 
cessful teaching  experience,  and  good  moral  character.  Examina- 
tion in  March  and  August. 

"  Second  :  to  applicants  who  shall  have  graduated  from  any  of 
the  state  normals  of  this  state  having  a  course  of  at  least  one  year's 
work  in  advance  of  an  approved  high  school  course  of  four  years, 
provided  such  course  shall  embrace  all  the  subjects  required  hi 
the  examination  for  state  certificates  as  well  as  pedagogical  in- 
struction and  professional  training,  comprising  at  least  one  fourth 
work  for  eighteen  months;  the  candidate  shall  also  submit  evi- 
dence of  at  least  eighteen  months'  successful  teaching  experience, 
and  evidence  of  good  moral  character. 
Q 


226   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

"A  provisional  certificate  will  be  issued,  valid  for  two  years,  to 
graduates  who  have  all  but  the  teaching  experience  above  men- 
tioned. Fee  for  the  provisional  certificate  is  two  dollars,  except 
to  graduates  of  South  Dakota  institutions. 

"Applicants  will  submit  their  credentials  as  provided  in  "two" 
of  life  diplomas. 

"Third:  to  applicants  who  are  graduates  of  any  other  institu- 
tion of  learning,  requiring  the  completion  of  courses  of  study  equiv- 
alent to  the  course  of  the  state  normals,  provided  that  if  the 
institution  does  not  offer  training  in  an  established  model  depart- 
ment comprising  all  the  grades  below  the  high  school,  the  candi- 
date will  furnish  evidence  of  nine  months'  successful  experience 
as  a  teacher,  in  lieu  of  such  model  training. 

"The  law  requires  the  fee  of  five  dollars  from  all  applicants 
except  from  graduates  of  the  institutions  within  the  state.  Any 
applicant  desiring  to  have  a  state  certificate  renewed  shall  present 
satisfactory  evidence  of  continued  and  successful  teaching  and 
satisfactory  evidence  of  full  attendance  at  a  county  institute 
during  the  current  year. 

"Applicants  for  state  certificate  on  school  credentials  should 
read  suggestions  to  such  applicants  for  life  diplomas." * 

Tennessee.  —  "A  high  school  teacher  hi  this  state  has  to  undergo 
an  examination  before  the  State  Board  of  Education.  He  is 
examined  on  the  subjects  embraced  in  the  course  which  he  is 
licensed  to  teach."  * 

Utah. —  "  City  high  school  certificates  shall  be  granted  only 
to  applicants  who  pass  satisfactorily  the  examination  required  for 
grammar  certificates,  and,  in  addition  thereto,  sustain  a  satisfac- 
tory examination  in  civil  government,  physical  geography,  ele- 
mentary physics,  elementary  algebra,  botany,  and  such  other 
branches  as  the  board  of  education  may  prescribe."  8 

1  Circular  of  Information  issued  by  State  Department  of  Education, 
1910.  2  Letter  from  State  Superintendent  R.  L.  Jones. 

*  School  Laws,  1909,  Sec.  1924,  p.  98.     Enacted  1897. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      227 

"Candidates  for  state  professional  diplomas  of  high  school 
grade  shall  be  required  by  examination  or  other  evidence  to  ex- 
hibit a  high  degree  of  scholarship  hi  all  the  following  branches, 
namely:  arithmetic,  United  States  history,  reading  and  elocu- 
tion, orthography,  English  grammar,  political  and  physical  geog- 
raphy, physiology,  algebra,  physics,  rhetoric,  drawing,  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  botany,  English  literature,  general  history,  civil 
government,  history  and  science  of  education,  and  psychology; 
and  also  in  any  three  of  the  following  branches,  namely :  chem- 
istry, geology,  French,  German,  Latin,  Greek,  trigonometry, 
zoology,  biology,  and  mineralogy." l 

"The  State  Board  of  Education  has  interpreted  'a  high  degree 
of  scholarship'  to  mean  a  college  education  including  the  profes- 
sional work  in  education  and  in  other  subjects  required  by  law, 
and  carrying  with  it  a  college  degree.  A  state  high  school  di- 
ploma is  valid  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state,  while  a  city 
high  school  certificate  authorizes  the  holder  to  teach  only  in  the 
school  under  the  supervision  of  the  board  issuing  the  certifi- 
cate."2 

Vermont.  —  "There  is  a  condition  imposed  in  prescription  of 
courses  for  high  schools  that  only  college  graduates  shall  be  em- 
ployed." 3 

Virginia.  —  "  Persons  desiring  to  teach  in  the  public  high 
schools,  or  in  schools  where  the  higher  branches  are  to  be  taught, 
shall  be  examined  on  such  higher  branches  as  they  may  be  re- 
quired to  teach ;  provided,  however,  that  the  graduates  of  colleges 
and  universities  of  approved  standing  and  reputation  shall  be 
permitted,  without  further  examination,  to  teach  in  such  schools 
the  branches  hi  which  they  have  graduated."  4 

Washington.  —  "  City  high  school  certificates  (in  cities  having 

1  School  Law,  1909,  p.  4,  Sec.  1767. 

*  Letter  from  State  Superintendent  A.  C.  Nelson. 

*  From  the  office  of  the  State  Superintendent. 

4  Regulations  of  the  State  Board  of  Education,  1907,  p.  126. 


228   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

one  hundred  or  more  teachers)  shall  be  granted  only  to  applicants 
who  pass  satisfactorily  the  examination  required  for  grammar 
certificates,  and  in  addition  thereto  sustain  a  satisfactory  exam- 
ination in  civil  government,  physical  geography,  elementary 
physics,  algebra,  botany,  and  such  other  branches  as  the  board  of 
directors  may  prescribe."  l 

West  Virginia.  —  "Applicants  for  teachers'  certificates  shall  be 
required  to  pass  an  examination  in  orthography,  reading,  penman- 
ship, arithmetic,  English  grammar  and  language,  physiology 
and  hygiene,  United  States  history,  state  history,  geography, 
civil  government,  agriculture,  and  theory  and  art  of  teaching ; 
and  applicants  for  certificates  good  in  the  advanced  grades  of 
graded  schools  or  high  schools  shall,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing, 
be  required  to  pass  examinations  in  general  history  and  single 
entry  bookkeeping.  Applicants  for  high  school  and  primary 
teachers'  certificates  shall  pass  an  examination  in  such  other 
branches  as  the  State  Board  of  Education  may  prescribe."  2 

Wisconsin.  —  "High  school  teachers  should  not  neglect  or 
fail  to  obtain  the  necessary  and  proper  legal  qualifications.  With- 
out such  qualification,  no  valid  contract  can  be  made  with  the  high 
school  board,  nor  is  the  teacher  entitled  to  pay  from  the  public  funds. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  the  work  of  teaching  be  entered 
upon  before  the  proper  legal  qualification  has  been  obtained. 

"Any  high  school  board  employing  a  teacher  without  legal  quali- 
fication renders  the  high  school  district  liable  to  loss  of  state  aid. 

"Any  one  of  the  following  named  documents  is  considered  a 
sufficient  legal  and  educational  qualification  for  the  position  of 
principal  or  assistant  in  any  high  school :  — 

1.  "The  Wisconsin  unlimited  state  certificate. 

2.  "A  diploma  granted  upon  the  completion  of  a  regular  col- 
legiate course  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  or  upon  the  com- 

1  School  Laws,  1909,  Art.  5,  Sec.  4,  p.  90. 

2  Ibid.,  1909,  Sec.  82. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      2  29 

pletion  of  the  full  course  of  any  Wisconsin  state  normal  school, 
if  countersigned  by  the  state  superintendent  of  Wisconsin. 

3.  "A  special  license  good  for  one  year,  issued  by  the  state 
superintendent  to  the  holder  of  either  of  the  above  diplomas. 

4.  "A  special  license  good  for  two  years,  issued  by  the  state 
superintendent  and  based  upon  a  diploma  from  a  state  normal 
school  located  outside  of  Wisconsin  whose  courses  of  study  are  fully 
and  fairly  equivalent  to  the  corresponding  advanced  courses  in 
the  Wisconsin  state  normal  schools. 

5.  "A  special  license  good  for  two  years,  issued  by  the  state 
superintendent  and  based  upon  a  diploma  from  a  university  or 
college  located  outside  of  Wisconsin  whose  courses  of  study  are 
fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the  corresponding  course  of  study 
in  the  Wisconsin  State  University. 

6.  "A  special  license  good  for  two  years,  issued  by  the  state 
superintendent,  based  upon  an  unlimited  state  certificate,  granted 
to  the  applicant  by  legal  authority  in  another  state. 

7.  "An  unlimited  state  certificate,  based  upon  a  diploma  from 
a  college  or  university  in  Wisconsin  whose  courses  of  study  are 
fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  corresponding  courses  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin.    The  holder  of  this  diploma  must  have 
successfully  taught  for  at  least  one  year  in  the  public  schools  of 
Wisconsin,  after  graduation,  before  such  certificate  can  be  issued. 

8.  "An  unlimited  state  certificate,  based  upon  a  diploma  from 
a  college  or  university  outside  of  Wisconsin  whose  regular  and  col- 
legiate courses  of  study  are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  corre- 
sponding courses  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.     The  holder  of 
this  diploma  must  have  successfully  taught  for  at  least  two  years 
in  the  public  schools  of  Wisconsin,  after  graduation,  before  such 
certificate  can  be  issued. 

9.  "An  unlimited  state  certificate,  based  upon  a  diploma  from 
a  state  normal  school  outside  of  Wisconsin  whose  courses  of  study 
are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the  advanced  or  four-year  courses 
of  study  prescribed  for  the  Wisconsin  state  normal  schools.    The 


230   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

holder  of  such  diploma  must  have  successfully  taught  for  at  least 
two  years  in  the  public  schools  of  Wisconsin,  after  graduation, 
before  such  certificate  can  be  issued. 

10.  "A  special  license  will  be  issued  by  the  state  superintendent 
when  recommended  by  the  state  board  of  examiners,  after  said 
board  has  passed  favorably  on  the  papers,  documents,  credentials, 
and  testimonials  furnished  by  the  officers  of  the  institution  from 
which  the  applicant  has  graduated,  and  such  other  persons  as  may 
be  named  or  called  upon  for  reference  as  to  learning,  good  moral 
character,  ability  to  teach,  ability  to  govern,  and  ability  to  con- 
duct and  supervise  a  school." * 

Wyoming.  —  "The  applicant  shall  pass  an  examination  in  all 
the  subjects  required  for  the  second-class  certificate  (the  common 
school  branches,  rhetoric  and  composition,  and  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching)  with  the  following  additional  subjects:  elementary 
algebra,  English  and  American  literature,  elementary  psychology, 
physical  geography,  and  any  two  or  more  of  the  following  subjects : 
plane  geometry,  botany,  zoology,  chemistry,  general  history,  Latin, 
German,  political  economy,  bookkeeping,  shorthand,  securing  an 
average  of  not  less  than  80  per  cent,  and  not  falling  below  60  per 
cent  in  any  one  branch.  An  applicant  for  this  class  of  certificate 
must  have  had  not  less  than  one  school  year  of  successful  experi- 
ence in  teaching."  2 

The  school  laws  of  the  different  states  indicate  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  states  before  mentioned,  no 
legal  distinction  has  been  made  between  the  qualifica- 
tions required  for  teachers  in  the  high  school  and  those 
required  for  teachers  in  the  elementary  school.  In  many 
of  the  states  a  certificate  of  any  kind  legally  qualifies  a 

1  Manual  of  the  Free  High  Schools  of  Wisconsin,  1910,  p.  4. 
1  School  Laws,  1909,  chap.  33,  Sec.  i,  p.  123.     Enacted  1909. 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF  AMERICAN   TEACHERS      23! 

teacher  to  serve  in  a  high  school.  The  fact  that  teachers 
possessing  only  certificates  of  lower  grade  are  seldom 
found  in  the  high  school  is  due  not  to  legal  disability 
but  to  public  opinion. 

In  about  two  thirds  of  the  states  certificates  to  teach  in 
schools  of  all  kinds  are  issued  to  holders  of  diplomas  from 
state  normal  schools  or  colleges  of  accepted  standing.1 
This  fact  shows  a  tendency  to  depend  more  upon  training 
than  upon  examination  as  a  test  of  competency.  In 
some  cases  a  specified  amount  of  pedagogical  training  is 
required,  in  others  no  requirements  of  this  kind  exist. 

From  the  foregoing  facts,  several  things  are  evident : 
first,  that  in  the  certification  of  teachers  there  has  been 
until  recently  little  or  no  discrimination  in  the  minds  of 
the  certificating  authorities  between  the  qualifications 
required  for  the  work  of  the  teacher  in  the  elementary 
grades  and  those  necessary  for  the  work  hi  the  high 
schools;  second,  that  with  the  exception  of  California  no 
state  has  established  a  standard  of  qualifications  for  its 
high  school  teachers  that  is  commensurate  with  the  stand- 
ard given  in  the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seventeen, 
which  may  be  taken  as  the  best  official  expression  of 

1  Some  sort  of  legal  recognition  is  given  such  diplomas  in~ Arizona, 
California,  Colorada,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Mary- 
land, Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana,  Ne- 
braska, Nevada,  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee, 
Texas,  Utah,  Vermont,  Virginia,  Washington,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin, 
Wyoming. 


232   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

opinion  upon  the  subject ;  third,  that  except  in  the  case 
of  California,  no  standard  has  been  established  which  can 
be  regarded  as  really  professional ;  fourth,  that  in  most 
of  the  states  not  only  does  no  such  standard  exist,  but  no 
clear  purpose  or  plan  of  establishing  such  a  standard  in 
the  future  is  evident.  The  result  is  that  the  high  school 
teacher  cannot  now  feel  that,  legally  considered,  he  be- 
longs to  a  profession,  nor  does  there  appear  much  ground 
for  hope  that  he  can  make  such  a  claim  in  the  immedi- 
ate future.  It  is  probably  true  that  the  exigencies  of  a 
new  and  undeveloped  country  have  made  these  condi- 
tions excusable  in  at  least  a  part  of  the  past;  but  it 
would  seem  that  the  state  should  now  squarely  face  the 
issue  and  place  the  work  of  the  teachers  in  the  high 
school  upon  a  truly  professional  basis. 

The  Qualifications  of  High  School  Teachers.  —  De- 
tailed information  concerning  the  training  of  the  teachers 
who  are  now  at  work  in  the  high  schools  of  the  United 
States  is  not  available,  but  their  scholastic  qualifications 
are  doubtless  much  better  than  might  be  indicated  by 
the  legal  provisions  for  certification.  In  the  larger  and 
better  schools  are  many  teachers  who,  to  good  academic 
training  in  the  beginning,  have  added  years  of  suc- 
cessful experience,  and  they  are  consequently  well 
equipped  for  their  work.  Such  teachers  are  occasionally 
found  in  the  smaller  schools  also.  Taking  the  country 
over,  it  is  probably  true  that  not  more  than  fifty  per 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      233 

cent  of  the  high  school  teachers  are  either  graduates  of 
a  four-year  college  course,  or  have  training  equivalent 
to  that  required  for  such  graduation;  and  that  a  much 
smaller  number,  probably  not  more  than  five  per  cent, 
have  adequate  pedagogical  training  or  would  be  able  to 
meet  the  requirements  presented  in  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Seventeen.1 
Professor  Thorndike  gives  the  following  statistics :  — 

"The  number  of  years  that  the  man  engaged  in  secondary  school 
work  spent  as  a  student  in  high  school,  normal  school,  college,  or 
other  institution  beyond  the  elementary  school,  ranges  from  o  to  13, 
or  possibly  higher  in  a  few  cases.  There  is  no  close  adherence  to 
any  one  type  the  country  over,  though  8  years  is  the  most  common 
length.  The  median  length  is  7  years.  Of  100  men  10  have  had 
less  than  4  years  beyond  the  elementary  school,  45  have  had  from 
4  up  to  8  years,  30  have  had  8  years,  and  15  have  had  9  years  or 
more.  Three  fifths  have  had  6,  7,  or  8  years.  .  .  .  The  length 
of  education  beyond  the  elementary  school  in  the  case  of  women 
teachers  ranges  from  o  to  12  years,  or  possibly  higher  in  a  few  cases. 
The  typical  condition  is  8  years.  There  are  somewhat  more  women 
who  have  had  8  years  or  more  than  those  who  have  had  7  years  or 
less.  Of  100  women,  6  or  7  have  had  less  than  4  years  beyond 
the  elementary  school,  40  or  41  have  had  from  4  up  to  8  years, 
41  to  42  have  had  8  years,  and  n  or  12  have  had  9  years  or  more."  * 

Certain  parts  of  the  country,  however,  especially  the 
New  England  states,  New  York  and  California,  probably 

1  See  Dexter,  E.  G.,  Fourth  Yearbook  for  the  Scientific  Study  of 
Education,  Vol.  I,  p.  61. 

2  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  The  Teaching  Staff  of  Secondary  Schools  in  the 
United  States.    United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin,  1909, 
No.  4,  p.  14. 


234   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

have  a  somewhat  larger  percentage  of  college-trained 
teachers  in  the  high  school.  The  rules  governing  the 
first  high  school  established  at  Boston  in  1821  provided 
*'  that  it  be  required  of  the  masters  and  ushers  as  a 
necessary  qualification  that  they  shall  have  been  regu- 
larly educated  at  some  university,"  and  although  this 
rule  has  not  always  been  observed,  there  has  everywhere 
been  a  strong  traditional  sentiment  in  favor  of  it. 

The  Need  of  Higher  Standards.  —  Comparison  of 
American  standards  of  certification  with  those  of  Ger- 
many, and  comparison  of  the  actual  qualifications  of  our 
teachers  with  those  of  Germany,  or  even  with  those  out- 
lined in  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Seventeen,  shows 
the  low  standards  of  training  that  actually  prevail  among 
us.  Germany  insists  upon  having  scholarly,  well-trained 
teachers  in  her  higher  schools  because  they  are  the  leaders 
of  the  future  university  students,  who  in  turn  become  the 
leaders  of  the  nation,  and  must,  therefore,  have  the 
best  training  possible.  The  same  reason  exists  for  us, 
and  also  the  added  reason  that  these  teachers  are  the 
trainers  of  that  vastly  larger  number  of  boys  and  girls 
who  do  not  reach  the  college,  but  who  become  the  strength 
and  support  of  the  communities  in  which  they  live. 
They,  too,  should  have  the  benefit  of  the  best  possible 
training.  Detailed  evidence  of  the  need  of  better  quali- 
fied teachers  is  not  necessary  here.  That  it  is  strongly 
felt  by  educators  everywhere  is  indicated  by  the  fact  of 


THE   CERTIFICATION   OF   AMERICAN   TEACHERS      235 

its  emphasis  in  almost  every  serious  discussion  of  means 
for  the  improvement  of  our  schools.  Well-trained 
teachers  in  every  school  would  increase  tremendously 
the  efficiency  and  productive  power  of  existing  schools, 
and  they  would  be  an  invaluable  aid  in  working  out  some 
problems  of  school  organization  which  are  pressing  for 
solution. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

As  indicated  in  a  previous  chapter  the  secondary  schools 
have  furnished  the  only  school  training  for  a  small  per 
cent  of  the  teachers  in  our  secondary  schools.  The  insti- 
tutions of  most  importance  in  this  work,  however,  are  the 
normal  schools,  colleges,  and  universities ;  and  within  the 
colleges  and  universities,  the  departments  and  schools 
of  education.  In  a  few  instances,  secondary  schools 
cooperate  with  the  college  in  giving  opportunities  for 
practice  teaching. 

Normal  Schools.  —  The  normal  schools  of  the  country, 
the  first  of  which  was  founded  in  Massachusetts  in  1839, 
were  established  primarily  for  the  training  of  teachers  for 
the  elementary  schools.  The  ordinary  normal  school 
course,  which  provides  work  extending  only  one  or  two 
years  beyond  the  high  school,  has  never  been  regarded 
by  thoughtful  educators  as  furnishing  satisfactory  train- 
ing for  secondary  school  work ;  but  many  normal  school 
graduates  have  become  high  school  teachers  either 
without  additional  training  or  after  having  finished  a 
college  or  university  course. 

236 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING    OF   TEACHERS      237 

The  College  as  a  Whole.  —  As  in  Germany,  so  in  the 
United  States,  the  college  and  the  university  taken  as  a 
whole  have  exerted  a  larger  influence  in  the  training  of 
secondary  teachers  than  any  special  professional  institu- 
tion established  either  within  or  without  them.  It  is 
only  within  the  last  two  decades  that  anything  more 
than  the  usual  academic  college  education  has  been  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  secondary  teacher.  The  best 
ideals  have  always  required  this  much,  however.  The 
teachers  in  the  Latin  grammar  schools  were  graduates  of 
the  English  universities  or  of  Harvard  or  Yale ;  the  acad- 
emies sought  college-trained  men  as  teachers;  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  best  class  of  high  schools.  The 
academic  college  course  is  now  and  always  has  been 
regarded  as  more  important  than  any  sort  of  purely 
pedagogical  training. 

Departments  and  Schools  of  Education.  —  There  came 
a  time,  however,  when  it  was  thought  desirable  to  add  to 
this  general  college  course,  or,  at  least,  to  include  in  it, 
some  definite  pedagogical  training.  This  has  been  ac- 
complished through  departments  of  education  established 
in  colleges  or  through  teachers'  colleges  or  schools  of 
education  established  either  in  connection  with  colleges 
and  universities  or  apart  from  them.  The  history  of  this 
movement  is  relatively  recent.  Professor  Luckey 1  says 

1  Luckey,  G.  W.  A.,  Professional  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers, 
chap.  IV. 


238       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

that  up  to  1890,  work  in  education,  looking  particularly 
towards  the  training  of  secondary  teachers,  was  estab- 
lished in  the  following-named  institutions:  Michigan 
University,  1879;  The  Johns  Hopkins  University 
(graduate  work),  1881 ;  Cornell  University,  and  Ohio 
University  (Athens),  1886;  Columbia  University 
(Teachers  College)  and  Northwestern  University,  1888 ; 
Clark  University  (graduate  work),  1889;  New  York 
University  and  Illinois  University,  1890.  From  1890 
to  1900  about  twenty  colleges  and  universities  were 
added  to  the  number,  and  the  Report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1909  contains  a 
list  of  171  colleges  and  universities  hi  which  there  is  at 
least  one  professor  of  pedagogy.  This  does  not  include 
the  state  normal  schools  which  have  organized  a  four- 
year  course  of  study  following  a  four-year  preparatory 
course,  thus  becoming  really  normal  colleges.  It  is  in 
these  institutions  and  others  similar  to  them  that  the 
secondary  teachers  of  the  United  States  may  now  receive 
their  training.  The  rapid  increase  in  their  number  indi- 
cates the  growth  of  interest  in  the  professional  training 
of  secondary  teachers. 

The  department  of  education  in  the  college  is  itself  a 
product  of  evolution.  In  the  beginning  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  some  phase  of  pedagogy  was  often  given  by  a 
member  of  some  other  college  department  or  by  a  practi- 
cal schoolman  from  the  outside.  The  work  in  education 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      239 

was  frequently  regarded  as  an  adjunct  to  the  department 
of  psychology  or  philosophy.  As  it  developed,  an  inde- 
pendent department  was  established  for  it  on  a  par  with 
other  departments  of  the  college  or  university,  and  with 
its  further  development  additional  members  were  added 
to  the  instructing  body.  In  most  of  the  colleges  and  in 
many  of  the  universities  of  the  country  this  is  the  status 
of  the  work  in  education  at  the  present  time. 

The  teachers'  colleges  or  schools  of  education  or  colleges 
of  education,  as  they  are  variously  called,  are,  in  most 
cases,  an  outgrowth  of  the  college  department  of  edu- 
cation. Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  was 
started  as  an  independent  institution  and  later  attached 
to  the  university.  A  few  institutions  that  may  now  fairly 
be  ranked  as  teachers'  colleges  are  simply  normal  schools 
that  have  extended  their  course  of  study  to  four  years, 
as  in  New  York,  Indiana,  and  Iowa.  As  the  work  in  edu- 
cation develops  there  appears  to  be  a  tendency  to  estab- 
lish, in  connection  with  the  larger  universities,  schools  of 
education,  ranking  with  the  colleges  or  schools  of  law, 
medicine,  and  engineering.  In  such  cases  the  general 
academic  work  of  students  is  usually  carried  on  in  the 
college  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  the  distinctively  profes- 
sional work  is  done  in  the  school  of  education.  There  are 
now  such  schools  at  Columbia  University,  New  York 
University,  Harvard,  Syracuse,  Cincinnati,  Chicago, 
Leland  Stanford  Junior,  Ohio  State,  Indiana,  Illinois, 


240   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Iowa,  Nebraska,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Colorado,  Arkan- 
sas, Wisconsin,  Nevada,  and  Wyoming,  and  the  number 
increases  with  each  year.  * 

The  theoretical  professional  work  offered  in  these  de- 
partments and  schools  of  education,  as  shown  in  their 
announcements,  includes  the  subjects  of  psychology, 
educational  psychology,  genetic  psychology,  the  psychol- 
ogy of  adolescence,  principles  of  education,  philosophy 
of  education,  history  of  education,  secondary  education, 
school  management,  school  supervision,  school  administra- 
tion, foreign  school  systems,  school  hygiene,  sociology,  and 
special  study  of  the  subjects  that  the  student  expects  to 
teach  along  with  the  methods  of  teaching  them.  The 
subjects  that  are  most  common  and  that  are  required 
in  the  greatest  number  of  cases  are  psychology,  educa- 
tional psychology,  history  of  education,  principles  of  edu- 
cation, observation,  and  methods  of  teaching  the  different 
subjects.  A  total  of  nine  hours  per  week  throughout  one 
year  may  be  regarded  as  approximately  the  amount  of 
work  given  in  the  five  or  six  subjects  that  are  regarded  as 
most  necessary.  The  other  subjects  are  offered  as  elec- 
tives.  The  work  is  usually  distributed  over  a  period  of 
at  least  two  years. 

The  practical  professional  training,  or  observation  and 
practice  work,  given  in  departments  and  schools  of  educa- 
tion is  very  different  in  different  institutions,  and  it  is 
developing  rapidly  from  year  to  year.  In  some  cases 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      241 

there  is  neither  observation  nor  teaching  by  students. 
In  other  cases  there  is  observation,  either  with  or  without 
direction  by  the  department,  but  no  teaching.  In  still 
other  cases  there  is  carefully  directed  observation  and 
a  few  hours  of  teaching.  And  finally,  there  are  a  few 
places  where  systematic  observation  is  followed  by  equally 
systematic  teaching  for  a  semester  or  a  year.  Both 
observation  and  teaching  are  carried  on,  sometimes  in 
public  schools  over  which  the  department  has  no  control, 
sometimes  in  schools  over  which  it  has  partial  control, 
and  sometimes  in  a  school  that  is  wholly  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  department.  Relatively  few  departments  or 
schools  of  education  have  schools  of  their  own.  Notable 
exceptions  are  Columbia  University  and  Chicago  Uni- 
versity, which  have  large  private  schools.  The  fact  that 
the  patrons  of  these  schools  pay  high  tuition  fees  and  ex- 
pect superior  teaching  in  return  makes  it  impracticable 
for  students  to  do  much  teaching  in  them.  They  are 
more  valuable  for  observation  than  for  practice.  Mis- 
souri University,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  practice  school 
which  is  used  for  both  observation  and  cadet  teaching. 
Harvard,  Brown,  Indiana,  Ohio  State,  Colorado,  Oregon, 
Washington,  California,  Texas,  and  some  others,  use  the 
local  public  schools  for  both  observation  and  practical 
teaching.  In  most  cases  students  are  admitted  to  obser- 
vation and  practice  teaching  in  the  junior  or  senior  year. 
Indiana  requires  practice  teaching  at  least  three  hours  per 


242   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

week  for  twelve  weeks,  and  seniors  are  admitted.  Cali- 
fornia requires  practice  teaching  at  least  four  semester 
hours  and  graduation  is  a  prerequisite. 

The  highest  standard  is  maintained  by  Brown  Univer- 
sity, which  admits  only  graduates  to  systematic  observa- 
tion and  cadet  teaching  in  the  local  high  schools.  Two 
types  of  student  teachers  are  recognized.  Those  of  the 
first  type,  four  in  number,  are  received  as  half  tune 
teachers  who  teach  for  one  year  under  the  careful  super- 
vision of  the  professor  of  education  and  a  supervising 
teacher.  The  latter  is  a  member  of  the  high  school  corps 
who  is  recognized  as  a  superior  teacher.  He  is  paid  a 
nominal  sum  for  his  supervisory  services  and  is  given  the 
privilege  of  attending  certain  university  courses  free  of 
cost.  The  student  teacher  is  paid  $400  for  his  year's 
work.  The  second  type  of  student  teacher  is  also  a 
graduate.  He  is  not  given  classes  to  teach  regularly, 
but  is  required  to  give  at  least  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
four  hours  in  observation,  assistance  to  the  regular 
teacher,  the  instruction  of  individual  pupils,  and  the 
teaching  of  a  class  more  or  less  irregularly.  He  receives 
no  financial  compensation.  The  teachers  of  both  types 
are  required  to  carry  on  a  certain  amount  of  university 
work  under  the  direction  of  the  department  of  education 
at  the  same  time  that  they  are  doing  the  practical  work 
in  the  schools.  The  guiding  principles  of  the  work  at 
Brown  University  are  given  as  follows: — 


INSTITUTIONS   FOR   THE   TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS      243 

"i.  The  practice  teaching  must  be  under  actual  classroom 
conditions,  and  must  cover  a  long  period,  not  less  than  one  year. 

"2.  The  practice  teaching  must  be  open  only  to  graduate  stu- 
dents who  have  previously  pursued  courses  in  education,  and  not 
to  undergraduate  students. 

"3.  The  practice  teaching  must  be  a  part  of  the  university 
work,  and  must  count  towards  a  degree  as  laboratory  work  in 
other  departments  counts  towards  a  degree. 

"4.  The  pupils  in  classes  under  student  teachers  must  have 
conditions  for  their  work  at  least  as  good  as  those  under  the  aver- 
age teacher  in  the  school. 

"5.  The  work  must  be  so  arranged  that  it  shall  be  of  advantage 
to  the  general  system  of  the  city  schools,  to  the  individual  schools, 
to  the  student  teachers,  and  to  the  university." 1 

The  above  accounts  of  professional  training  are  not 
designed  to  be  exhaustive,2  but  they  may  be  taken  as 
typical  of  what  is  being  done  in  the  various  institutions, 
and  they  show  the  generally  undeveloped  state  of  this 
phase  of  the  training  work. 

1  Proceedings  of  the  National  Society  of  College  Teachers  of  Educa- 
tion, 1909.     Article  by  W.  B.  Jacobs. 

2  For  a  more  complete  study  of  the  professional  work  given  in  colleges 
and  universities,  the  reader  is  referred  to  "The  Present  Training  of 
Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools,"  by  E.  G.  Dexter,  in  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Seventeen;   to  "Observation  and  Practice  Teaching  in 
College  and  University  Departments  of  Education,"  by  F.  E.  Farrington, 
and  others  in  Proceedings  of  the  National  Society  of  College  Teachers 
of  Education,  1909  ;  and  to  "  The  Relation  of  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation to  Other  Departments  in  Colleges  and  Universities,"  by  F.  E. 
Bolton,  in  Journal  of  Pedagogy,  Vol.  XIX,  Nos.  2-3.     December,  1906  ; 
March,  1907. 


CHAPTER   IX 

WHO  is  RESPONSIBLE? 

IN  a  matter  of  such  great  and  general  importance  as 
the  proper  training  of  teachers  for  the  public  high  schools, 
many  institutions  and  many  individuals  must  share  re- 
sponsibility. Those  upon  whom  the  burden  falls  in  this 
case  are  the  state,  individual  teachers,  the  colleges  and 
universities,  and  the  schools. 

The  Responsibility  of  the  State.  —  Early  in  their  his- 
tory the  American  colonies  accepted  the  principle  that 
the  education  of  their  children  must  not  be  left  to  indi- 
vidual or  philanthropic  initiative,  but  is  a  duty  devolv- 
ing upon  the  state.  Because  it  is  the  creator  and  also 
the  beneficiary  of  the  public  school  system,  the  state 
is  responsible  for  the  standard  of  qualifications  of  its 
teachers.  Through  its  system  of  public  education  a 
nation  develops,  controls,  and  perpetuates  its  ideals  and 
its  policies.  In  a  nation's  schools  is  reflected  the  nation's 
life.  The  class  schools  of  England  and  Germany  can  ex- 
ist only  in  a  country'where  there  are  marked  class  distinc- 
tions. The  democratic  schools  of  the  United  States  can 
exist  only  in  a  democratic  society.  State  schools  are  not 

244 


WHO   IS   RESPONSIBLE  ?  245 

founded  in  a  spirit  of  philanthropy  or  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  welfare  of  the  individual,  though,  doubt- 
less, both  of  these  ends  are  served ;  they  are  established 
that  the  state  may  possess  intelligent,  patriotic  citizens 
who  will  serve  its  interests  wisely  and  loyally.  As 
creator  and  beneficiary,  the  state  is  responsible  not  only 
for  what  the  schools  have  been  and  are,  but  also  for  what 
they  are  to  be ;  and  since  the  teacher  is  the  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  determining  the  character  of  the  school,  the 
teacher's  qualifications  lie  at  the  very  heart  of  the  state's 
responsibility. 

Having  committed  itself  to  the  policy  of  education  at 
public  expense,  the  state  is  responsible  for  such  a  develop- 
ment of  the  public  school  system  as  will  produce  not 
simply  the  largest  returns,  but  the  greatest  possible  per 
cent  of  returns  on  the  money  invested.  Doubtless  the 
public  schools  as  they  exist  are  abundantly  worth  their 
cost;  nevertheless  they  can  be  made  to  yield  not  only 
larger  returns  as  a  whole,  but  a  much  larger  per  cent  of 
returns  on  the  investment.  To  do  this  will  require  more 
intelligent  care  and  the  investment  of  more  money,  but 
as  a  mere  business  proposition  it  should  be  done.  Under 
such  circumstances  nothing  except  inability  to  secure  the 
needed  funds  would  deter  a  wise,  aggressive  business  man 
from  developing  his  plant.  If  the  state  fails,  it  is  not 
showing  good  business  sense,  and  it  is  responsible  for  the 
loss  entailed.  This  principle  is  applicable  at  every  point 


246   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

at  which  the  possibility  of  improvement  is  shown,  hence 
it  applies  to  the  training  of  teachers.  The  state  is  just 
as  much  responsible  for  the  development  of  the  highest 
possible  efficiency  in  its  system  of  education  as  it  was  for 
the  establishment  of  the  system  itself. 

Again,  the  state  is  responsible  because  it  is  the  only 
authority  that  is  competent  to  deal  with  the  situation. 
The  effective  establishment  of  an  adequate  professional 
standard  for  the  certification  of  high  school  teachers  must 
ultimately  depend  upon  legal  enactment.  In  a  democ- 
racy, true  enough,  it  is  useless,  even  when  it  is  not  impos- 
sible, to  pass  laws  which  are  too  far  in  advance  of  public 
opinion ;  but  progressive  laws  enacted  by  the  leaders  of 
the  people  often  serve  to  crystallize  public  sentiment  hi 
their  support,  at  the  same  time  that  they  make  increased 
demands  upon  public  service.  At  all  events,  there  can, 
in  this  case,  be  no  well-founded  progress  that  is  not  based 
upon  legal  enactment.  A  considerable  number  of  indi- 
viduals may  voluntarily  make  the  desired  preparation, 
but  there  will  surely  be  some,  and  probably  many,  who 
will  not.  They  can  get  on  without  the  expenditure  of 
time,  money,  and  effort  in  preparation.  Why  should  they 
make  it  ?  Who  is  prepared  to  say  that  they  are  wholly 
at  fault  ?  They  have  fulfilled  the  demands  of  society  and 
the  state.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  prepare  them- 
selves well  for  the  work  soon  become  painfully  conscious 
of  the  fact  that  they  are  given  no  advantages  which  are 


WHO   IS   RESPONSIBLE  ?  247 

at  all  commensurate  with  the  additional  preparation 
that  they  have  made,  and  they  become  justly  dissatisfied. 
There  can  be  no  profession  of  teaching  until  the  state 
establishes  a  standard  of  certification  that  is  worthy  of 
the  profession  which  it  seeks  to  establish.  The  higher 
standard  can  be  actually  realized  only  through  the 
assistance  of  the  strong  arm  of  the  law. 

In  the  present  case  there  seems  to  be  special  responsi- 
bility because  the  teacher  is  the  strategic  point  in  the 
whole  educational  enterprise.  Care  and  money  invested 
in  improving  his  qualifications  will  bring  larger  returns 
than  ii  invested  hi  any  other  part  of  the  business.  In  a 
system  of  public  education  as  loosely  organized  as  ours, 
much  more  depends  upon  the  efficiency  and  power  of  ini- 
tiative of  the  teacher  than  is  the  case  in  a  closely  organ- 
ized and  supervised  system  like  that  of  Germany.  To 
improve  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  is  at  once  to  improve 
the  quality  of  his  own  teaching,  to  avoid  some  of  the 
errors  due  to  our  present  organization,  or  lack  of  it,  and 
to  provide  a  helper  who  can  be  of  material  assistance  hi 
working  out  some  needed  reforms.  A  competent  teacher 
can  overcome  the  disadvantages  of  bad  system  or  no  sys- 
tem. On  the  other  hand,  no  amount  of  system  or  or- 
ganization can  flourish  in  the  hands  of  incompetent 
teachers.  From  whatever  point  of  view  the  subject  is 
regarded,  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  more  speedy  and 
substantial  results  will  follow  from  the  improvement  of 


248   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

the  teaching  force  than  from  anything  else.  Better 
qualified  teachers  are  needed  to  secure  better  work  un- 
der existing  conditions,  to  help  devise  better  plans,  and 
to  assist  in  carrying  out  reforms  when  they  are  under- 
taken. 

The  responsibility  of  the  state  in  this  matter  seems  to 
be  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  institutional 
means  for  the  training  of  high  school  teachers  are  already 
in  existence  and  are  ready  to  be  organized  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  create  new  institutions  or  even,  in 
many  cases,  to  increase  largely  the  expenses  of  those 
already  existing.  These  institutions  are  the  colleges, 
the  universities,  and  the  secondary  schools,  especially 
the  public  high  schools.  Under  the  authority  and  leader- 
ship of  the  state  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  bring  about  a 
cooperative  effort  on  the  part  of  these  institutions,  which 
would  effectively  accomplish  the  desired  end.  A  plan  of 
procedure  is  outlined  on  later  pages. 

It  must  be  freely  granted,  however,  that  in  many  states 
the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  a  standard  of  quali- 
fications equal  to  that  required  of  teachers  in  the  Prussian 
higher  schools,  or  to  that  which  leading  American  edu- 
cators would  accept  as  satisfactory  for  teachers  hi  our 
high  schools,  would  now  be  impossible.  Either  public 
sentiment  would  not  accept  the  standard,  or  facilities  are 
wanting  for  the  training  of  teachers,  or  salaries  are  so 
low  that  no  teacher  can  afford  to  make  such  preparation. 


WHO   IS   RESPONSIBLE  ?  249 

Where  such  conditions  exist,  it  would,  of  course,  be  folly 
to  adopt  at  once  an  impossible  policy  and  place  on  the 
statute  books  a  law  concerning  the  certification  of  high 
school  teachers,  which  could  not  be  carried  into  effect. 
The  best  that  can  be  done  under  such  circumstances  is 
to  recognize  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  and  adopt  a 
standard  that  is  consistent  with  those  conditions.  In  the 
formulation  of  such  a  standard,  however,  it  is  always 
possible  to  make  it  a  step  towards  a  higher  one,  one  that 
would  be  satisfactory.  Not  infrequently  it  is  possible 
to  adopt  a  higher  standard,  with  the  provision  that  it 
shall  not  go  into  effect  until  such  a  date  as  will  enable 
every  one  concerned  to  meet  its  conditions.  Teachers 
who  are  already  in  the  service  can  be  left  undisturbed, 
and  the  new  provisions  be  made  to  apply  to  those  only 
who  enter  after  this  specified  future  date.  The  one  im- 
portant fact  in  all  cases  is  that  state  legislation  on  the 
subject  is  a  crying  necessity ;  and  if  the  present  unsatis- 
factory standards  in  the  work  of  the  high  schools  are  not 
to  continue,  legislators  must  face  the  need  squarely  and 
either  provide  for  the  immediate  adoption  of  a  really 
professional  standard  for  teachers,  or  for  the  adoption  of 
standards  lower  than  this  which  shall,  nevertheless,  be  a 
definite  step  in  the  desired  direction.  To  do  less  than  this 
is  to  ignore  the  need  entirely. 

The  Responsibility  of  the  Individual  Teacher.  —  But 
even  in  those  cases  in  which  the  state  either  cannot  or 


250   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

will  not  provide  for  the  establishment  of  an  adequate 
standard  of  qualifications  in  the  certification  of  high 
school  teachers,  the  situation  should  not  be  considered 
hopeless.  If  it  is  true  that  Germany  is  a  land  of  strong, 
centralized  authority  and  paternalistic  government;  it 
is  no  less  true  that  the  United  States  is  the  country  of 
freedom  and  of  individual  and  institutional  enterprise. 
That  which  is  handed  down  from  above  hi  the  former 
can  grow  up  from  below  in  the  latter.  Individuals  and 
institutions  have  opportunities  and  responsibilities.  The 
individual  teacher  or  prospective  teacher  who  sees  the 
need  can  do  no  more  patriotic  service  than  to  give  him- 
self the  training  which  his  vocation  requires,  even  though 
the  state  does  not  demand  it  of  him  and  neither  pays  him 
well  for  his  work  nor  protects  him  from  the  rival  claims 
of  those  whose  training  is  much  inferior.  Fortunately 
many  teachers  are  now  doing  this  to  the  limit  of  the  op- 
portunities offered  for  such  training,  and  an  increasingly 
large  number  will  do  it  if  the  needs  of  the  work  can  be 
properly  brought  to  their  attention  and  if  opportunities 
can  be  provided  for  such  training.  In  a  cause  so  worthy, 
it  seems  entirely  in  order  to  appeal  to  the  patriotism 
and  professional  ambition  of  individuals,  even  though 
some  hardship  may  seem  to  be  involved.  To  the  con- 
sciousness that  really  effective  service  has  been  rendered, 
there  will  in  time  usually  be  added  an  appreciable  gain  of 
a  more  material  character.  The  capable  man  or  woman 


WHO   IS   RESPONSIBLE  ?  25 1 

who  prepares  himself  well  for  his  work  is  pretty  sure  to 
find  reasonably  satisfactory  promotion  awaiting  him. 

The  Responsibility  of  College  and  University.  —  Upon 
colleges  and  universities  there  rests  a  peculiar  responsi- 
bility in  this  matter.  If  the  state  has  already  adopted  a 
satisfactory  standard  in  the  certification  of  high  school 
teachers,  the  burden  of  providing  the  necessary  training 
falls  upon  these  institutions;  and,  because  of  the  great 
number  of  teachers  who  leave  the  work  each  year,  that 
burden  is  not  a  light  one.  It  would  probably  tax  to  the 
utmost  the  present  capacity  of  every  college  in  every 
state  in  the  union  to  turn  out  each  year  enough  properly 
equipped  candidates  for  the  position  of  high  school 
teacher  to  take  the  places  of  those  who,  for  various 
reasons,  leave  the  work.  In  many  states  the  existing 
equipment  of  the  higher  institutions  is  totally  insufficient 
for  this  purpose.  The  success  of  the  state  in  carrying 
out  its  policy  is  absolutely  dependent  upon  the  efficiency 
of  the  higher  institutions  in  providing  facilities  for  the 
necessary  training. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  state  has  not  adopted  a  satis- 
factory standard  of  training  for  the  certification  of  high 
school  teachers,  scarcely  less  responsibility  rests  upon  the 
college  and  university.  In  the  interest  of  scholarship  in 
general  and  of  their  own  individual  students  in  particular, 
it  is  their  duty  to  foster  all  means  that  tend  to  the  better 
preparation  of  future  college  students ;  and  nothing  will 


252   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

contribute  as  much  to  that  end  as  providing  every  pre- 
paratory school  with  well-trained  teachers.  As  leaders 
of  public  sentiment  it  is  their  duty  to  favor  measures 
for  the  general  public  good,  especially  in  the  field  of  edu- 
cation. And  as  the  only  institutions  which  can  do  the 
work  required  in  the  proper  training  of  teachers,  it  is 
their  privilege  and,  to  the  limit  of  their  ability,  their  duty 
to  show  in  advance  their  willingness  and  readiness  to  co- 
operate in  the  execution  of  a  movement  that  lies  so  close 
to  the  public  welfare.  How  can  ambitious  individuals 
secure  the  training  to  which  they  aspire  if  the  higher  in- 
stitutions do  not  provide  for  it?  And  how  can  prac- 
tical-minded state  legislators  be  expected  to  provide  for 
a  satisfactory  standard  of  training  for  certification  if 
they  are  confronted  with  the  fact  that  the  educational 
institutions  of  the  country,  and  especially  of  their  own 
state,  are  not  equipped  to  furnish  such  training  ? 

The  Responsibility  of  School  Authorities.  —  In  the 
development  of  a  proper  standard  of  qualifications  and  of 
certification  of  high  school  teachers,  the  school  authori- 
ties —  principals,  superintendents,  and  governing  boards 
—  have  an  exceedingly  important  part  to  play.  In  the 
first  place,  they  should  express  practically,  in  the  choice  of 
their  teachers,  a  preference  for  those  who  have  had  good 
training.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this  is  not  now  done  in  any 
satisfactory  manner.  In  many  cases  there  is  no  insist- 
ence upon  college_training  or  its  equivalent,  the  emphasis 


WHO   IS   RESPONSIBLE  ?  253 

being  placed  upon  experience  regardless  of  whether  it 
has  been  in  the  high  school  or  in  the  grades.  In  other 
cases  the  applicant  for  a  position  must  have  had  college 
training  and  experience  in  teaching  in  some  other  school, 
but  no  importance  is  attached  to  special  pedagogical 
training.  In  relatively  few  cases  do  employers  of  high 
school  teachers  show  any  considerable  regard  for  training 
which  involves  both  the  academic  and  the  pedagogical 
side.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this  state  of  affairs. 
Teachers  are  often  selected  by  members  of  a  school  board 
who  cannot,  in  many  cases,  be  expected  to  have  sufficient 
knowledge  of  what  constitutes  good  training.  Unfor- 
tunately the  same  thing  may  be  said  about  some  superin- 
tendents and  principals.  In  other  cases  the  pedagogical 
training  that  has  thus  far  been  available  has  not  com- 
mended itself  as  being  very  valuable.  In  still  other  cases 
the  value  of  such  training,  when  it  is  of  the  right  kind, 
has  been  fully  recognized,  but  the  scarcity  of  applicants 
possessing  it  is  so  great  that  it  cannot  be  demanded  of  all 
applicants.  The  ignorance  of  employers,  the  unsatisfac- 
tory character  of  certain  forms  of  pedagogical  training, 
and  the  scarcity  of  applicants  who  have  been  well  trained, 
have  combined  to  produce  this  lack  of  practical  interest 
on  the  part  of  school  authorities.  When,  in  the  selection 
of  a  teacher  for  the  high  school,  the  same  preference  is 
given  to  the  applicant  who  has  good  pedagogical  training, 
as  is  now  usually  shown  the  normal  school  graduate  who 


254       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

applies  for  a  position  in  the  grades,  the  proper  pedagogical 
training  of  high  school  teachers  will  have  been  given  a 
great  stimulus.  The  burden  of  this  attainment  rests 
upon  the  authorities  of  the  high  school. 

In  the  second  place  the  school  authorities  are  respon- 
sible for  cooperative  -assistance  in  the  training  of  high 
school  teachers.  A  certain  class  of  high  schools,  usually 
the  smaller  ones,  have  for  years  been  taking  as  teachers 
young  college  graduates  who  are  innocent  of  both  experi- 
ence and  pedagogical  training.  The  opportunity  thus 
afforded  these  young  men  and  women  is  not  one  of  train- 
ing for  their  work  under  competent  direction,  but  rather 
that  of  showing  what  they  can  do  on  their  own  account. 
If  they  fail,  there  is  none  to  help.  If,  by  dint  of  indus- 
trious experimentation  and  much  floundering,  they  suc- 
ceed, well  and  good.  In  either  case,  however,  the  pupils 
are  innocent  sufferers  to  greater  or  less  degree.  There 
are  other  schools,  usually  the  larger  ones,  which  are  not 
willing  to  take  these  young  graduates,  but  are  ever  on 
the  watch  to  discover  and  attract  the  more  successful 
ones  from  the  smaller  schools.  Colleges  complain  be- 
cause the  pupils  from  the  high  school  are  not  well 
trained.  The  high  schools  reply  that  they  have  been 
taught  by  the  teachers  sent  to  them  with  the  strongest 
college  recommendations.  It  seems  not  to  have  occurred 
to  either  party  that  a  better  means  of  solving  their 
respective  difficulties,  which  are  very  real  on  both 


WHO   IS   RESPONSIBLE  ?  255 

sides,  would  be  to  unite  in  a  cooperative  effort  for  the 
theoretical  and  practical  training  of  teachers  under  com- 
petent supervision  before  they  are  thrown  out  to  sink  or 
swim  alone.  Many  a  teacher,  who  now  fails  wholly  or  in 
part,  could  be  saved  to  the  ranks  of  really  good  teachers 
if  he  received  proper  assistance  from  the  principal  at  the 
start.  If  the  beginner  could  commence  his  work,  not 
only  with  this  assistance  from  the  principal,  but  also  with 
careful  criticism  and  supervision  of  his  work  by  a  univer- 
sity department  of  education,  the  chances  of  his  attaining 
a  much  higher  degree  of  success  would  be  immeasurably 
increased.  Where  there  is  opportunity  for  such  coopera- 
tive effort  on  the  part  of  the  university  departments  of 
education  and  local  high  schools,  the  latter  could  render 
an  inestimable  benefit  to  the  cause  of  high  school  educa- 
tion by  providing  an  opportunity  for  a  certain  amount  of 
teaching  by  candidates  under  the  close  supervision  of 
those  who  are  competent  to  assist  them  in  successful  prac- 
tical efforts  based  upon  well-considered  theory.  The 
experience  of  Germany  in  this  matter  should  not  be 
permitted  to  escape  our  notice  without  the  most  careful 
consideration.  Tentative  experiments  along  this  line  in 
a  few  American  high  schools  seem  to  be  meeting  with 
such  success  as  to  warrant  their  extension  to  other  in- 
stitutions. 


CHAPTER  X 
A  DESIRABLE  STANDARD  OF  TRAINING 

WE  have  thus  far  spoken  of  the  need  of  a  higher  stand- 
ard of  qualifications  for  our  high  school  teachers  without 
special  reference  to  what  that  standard  should  be.  What 
should  it  be?  What  are  the  qualifications  which  it  is 
right  and  reasonable  to  expect  such  teachers  to  possess? 
First,  of  course,  a  certain  native  ability  and  adaptability. 
These  are  fundamental,  but  it  is  not  the  business  of  the 
state  or  the  institution  to  create  them.  It  is  their  busi- 
ness to  discover  them  where  they  exist  and  then  to  train 
them  to  the  greatest  practicable  efficiency.  Only  less 
important  is  it  that  those  who  do  not  possess  these 
qualities  should  be  kept  out  of  the  work  of  teaching  and 
guided  into  a  field  in  which  they  can  be  more  successful. 
For  the  state  and  the  institution,  the  training  is  the 
important  factor  in  this  question.  Of  what  should  it 
consist  ? 

The  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seventeen.  —  An 
answer  to  this  question  has  already  been  formulated  in 
the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seventeen,  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  National  Educational  Association.  As 

256 


A   DESIRABLE    STANDARD   OF   TRAINING  257 

the  most  authoritative  expression  of  opinion  on  the  sub- 
ject this  report  may  be  taken  as  the  point  of  departure  for 
the  discussion  of  the  question. 

The  following  are  the  joint  recommendations  of  the 
Committee  of  Seventeen  on  the  professional  preparation 
of  high  school  teachers. 

"The  committee  on  the  preparation  of  high  school  teachers 
recommend :  — 

"I.  That    the   academic    preparation    include    the    following 
elements :  — 

"A.  A  detailed  and  specialized  study  of  the  subjects  to  be 
taught.  The  program  of  studies  selected  by  each 
student  should  include  work  in  subjects  outside  of 
those  in  which  he  is  making  special  preparation, 
sufficient  to  give  some  insight  into  the  different 
fields  of  knowledge  and  to  avoid  the  dangers  of  over- 
specialization. 

"B.  One  or  more  subjects  from  a  group  including  history, 
economics,  and  sociology,  which  will  give  the  teacher 
a  proper  outlook  upon  the  social  aspects  of  educa- 
tion. 

"C.  A  course  in  general  psychology  and  at  least  one  from 
a  group  of  subjects  including  history  of  philosophy, 
logic,  and  ethics,  which  will  give  the  teacher  a  proper 
outlook  upon  education  as  the  development  of  the 
individual. 

"II.  That  definite  study  be  given  to  each  of  the  following  sub- 
jects, either  in  separate  courses  or  in  such  combina- 
tions as  convenience  or  necessity  demands :  — 

"A.  History  of  education. 

1.  History  of  general  education. 

2.  History  of  secondary  education. 


258       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

"B.  Educational  psychology  with  emphasis  on  adolescence. 

"C.  The  principles  of  education,  including  the  study  of 
educational  aims,  values,  and  processes.  Courses 
in  general  method  are  included  under  this  heading. 

"D.  Special  methods  in  the  secondary  school  subjects  that 
the  student  expects  to  teach. 

"E.  Organization  and  management  of  schools  and  school 
systems. 

"F.  School  hygiene. 

"HI.  That  opportunity  for  observation  and  practice  teaching 
with  secondary  pupils  be  given. 

"  The  committee  recognizes  the  difficulties  involved  in  this 
recommendation,  but  believes  that  they  are  not 
insurmountable.  Each  of  the  following  plans  has 
proved  successful  in  some  instances :  — 

"A.  The  maintenance  of  a  school  of  secondary  school 
grade  that  may  be  used  for  observation  and  prac- 
tice. 

"B.  Affiliation  with  public  or  private  high  schools  so  situ- 
ated geographically  that  practice  teaching  can  be 
done  without  interfering  with  other  work  of  the 
college  course. 

"In  addition  to  the  above,  the  committee  suggests  that 
where  competent  critical  supervision  is  possible,  cadet 
teaching,  in  schools  more  remotely  situated,  may  be 
attempted.  In  such  cases,  a  teacher's  diploma 
might  be  granted  after  a  year's  successful  work  as 
a  cadet  teacher. 

"IV.  That  the  minimum  requirements  for  a  secondary  school 
teacher  be  graduation  from  a  college  maintaining 
a  four-year  course  and  requiring  four  years'  high 
school  work  for  admission,  or  from  an  institution 
having  equivalent  requirements  for  admission  and 
giving  equivalent  academic  scholarship. 


A   DESIRABLE   STANDARD   OF   TRAINING  259 

"A  year  of  graduate  work  divided  between  academic  and 
professional  subjects  is  desirable.  Discussions  of 
the  relative  value  of  college  and  normal  schools  for 
secondary  school  teachers  are  to  be  found  in  the 
references  below.  (See  p.  538  of  Proceedings  of  the 
National  Educational  Association.) 

"V.  That  the  study  of  subjects  mentioned  under  II  be  distributed 
through  the  last  two  years  of  the  college  course. 

"The  proportional  amount  of  time  given  to  these  subjects 
will  vary  with  local  conditions,  but  an  irreducible 
minimum  is  one  eighth  of  the  college  course.  They 
should  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  the  subjects 
mentioned  in  I,  B,  C.  Recommendations  as  to  the 
amount  of  time  given  to  particular  courses  will  be 
found  in  several  of  the  accompanying  papers." l 

In  the  training  of  the  high  school  teacher  there  are 
four  factors  to  be  considered:  (i)  The  length  of  the 
training  period;  (2)  general  academic  training ;  (3)  theo- 
retical professional  training;  (4)  practical  professional 
training.  The  five  headings  in  the  Committee's  report 
may  be  reduced  to  three.  Points  I  and  IV  belong  under 
general  academic  training ;  points  II  and  V,  under  theo- 
retical professional  training ;  and  point  III,  under  prac- 
tical professional  training. 

The  Period  of  Training.  —  Extended  observations  of 
the  work  of  high  school  teachers  has  led  the  writer  to  be- 
lieve that  the  minimum  satisfactory  standard  of  general 
academic  training  should  be  the  equivalent  of  that 

1  Proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association,  1907,  pp.  521- 
668.  Also  published  separately. 


260       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY    SCHOOLS 

required  for  graduation  from  the  four-year  college  course, 
together  with  one  additional  year  of  combined  theoretical 
and  practical  professional  study.  An  examination  of  the 
Prussian  system  in  operation  has  served  to  confirm  the 
belief.  The  first  reason  for  this  conviction  is  general  in 
its  nature.  It  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  work  of  the  high 
school  teacher  is  just  as  important  for  the  welfare  of  the 
individual  and  of  the  state  as  the  work  of  the  physician 
or  the  lawyer ;  it  requires  ability  of  equally  high  grade, 
and  he  should  have  just  as  good  talent  and  training.  In 
the  attempts  to  establish  a  satisfactory  standard  of 
training  for  the  lawyer  and  physician,  no  one  thinks 
of  less  than  five  years  of  training  from  the  time  the  candi- 
date enters  college.  The  shortest  of  combined  courses 
provides  for  this  tune,  and  many  young  men  actually 
spend  three  or  four  years  in  the  professional  school  after 
the  four  years  of  college  life.  The  young  physician  often 
adds  one  or  two  years  of  hospital  experience.  The  work 
of  the  high  school  teacher  should  be  put  upon  such  a 
basis  that  it  will  rank  with  that  of  the  learned  professions 
and  be  entitled  to  the  respect  of  those  who  practice  them. 
A  second  and  more  fundamental  reason  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  work  of  the  high  school  teacher  requires  all 
the  general  culture,  personal  power,  and  professional 
facility  that  such  a  course  of  training  can  give.  In  the 
school  and  in  the  community  he  stands  legitimately  as  the 
representative  of  general  literary  and  scientific  culture. 


A   DESIRABLE   STANDARD   OF   TRAINING  261 

He  should  not  dishonor  the  spirit  which  he  represents. 
He  should  not  only  have  a  scholarly  acquaintance  with 
the  subjects  that  he  teaches,  but  he  should  have  such 
knowledge  of  other  subjects  as  will  give  him  a  broad  out- 
look upon  life  and  the  whole  field  of  human  effort.  In 
scarcely  any  other  vocation  is  there  such  an  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  great  permanent  influence  through 
purely  personal  power.  He  should  have  time  and  oppor- 
tunity for  the  training  and  development  of  that  power. 
The  body  of  purely  professional  information  which  every 
teacher  should  have  before  entering  upon  his  work  is  of 
such  amount  and  character  as  may  well  occupy  part  of  his 
thought  for  two  or  three  years.  It  cannot  be  swallowed 
whole  with  profit,  it  must  be  chewed  and  assimilated. 
The  candidate  needs,  in  addition,  time  and  opportunity 
for  serving  a  carefully  supervised  apprenticeship  before 
he  assumes  the  burdens  of  an  entire  school  on  his  own 
account.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  Committee  of 
Seventeen  did  not  see  its  way  clear  to  speak  as  posi- 
tively regarding  the  need  of  the  graduate  year  as  it  did 
concerning  the  regular  college  course. 

Academic  Training.  —  The  range  of  subjects  to  be 
pursued  in  the  general  academic  training  cannot  be 
definitely  prescribed,  but  there  are  certain  principles  of 
general  application.  These  principles  have  been  recog- 
nized in  the  report  of  the  committee,  but  it  is  worth 
while  to  state  them  a  little  more  explicitly  than  they  are 


262       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

there  given.  In  the  college  the  candidate  should  study 
thoroughly  and  somewhat  extensively  two  or  three 
allied  subjects  which  he  desires  to  teach  in  the  school. 
No  exact  statement  concerning  the  amount  of  time  to  be 
devoted  to  these  subjects  can  be  given,  but  it  may  be  said, 
in  general,  that  each  subject  should  be  pursued  in  the  col- 
lege course  from  two  to  four  years  beyond  the  point  where 
the  teaching  of  it  stops  in  the  high  school.  By  choosing 
three  different  but  allied  subjects,  the  candidate  will  se- 
cure, to  the  greatest  possible  degree,  the  advantages  of 
both  specialization  and  general  study.  Such  training  also 
prepares  the  teacher  to  do  better  work  in  the  school  than 
if  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  a  single  subject.  If 
he  is  properly  trained,  he  can  teach  two  or  three  subjects 
more  profitably  than  one.  The  pursuit  of  the  favorite 
subjects  should  not  be  permitted  to  engross  so  much  time 
as  to  exclude  a  reasonable  number  of  other  courses  neces- 
sary for  general  culture.  Especially  should  English  not 
be  neglected.  The  social  studies  are  particularly  im- 
portant because  of  the  insight  which  they  give  into  the 
sphere  of  the  school  as  an  institution;  the  high  school 
teacher  should  be  an  intelligent  factor  in  the  working  out 
of  our  numerous  unsolved  social  problems.  Psychology 
and  the  philosophical  studies  are  to  be  commended,  for  the 
reasons  given  in  the  report.  At  least  one  elementary 
course  in  biology  either  in  the  preparatory  course  or  in 
the  college  should  be  included. 


A  DESIRABLE   STANDARD  OP  TRAINING  263 

Theoretical  Professional  Training.  —  The  recommen- 
dations of  the  committee  concerning  the  theoretical  pro- 
fessional training,  as  given  under  II  and  V,  impress  the 
writer  as  being  the  most  satisfactory  part  of  the  report. 
The  essential  elements  of  that  training  are  there  indi- 
cated. The  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  these 
subjects  together  and  to  each  separately  is  necessarily 
an  uncertain  and  somewhat  variable  quantity.  Other 
topics  might  be  added,  but  a  satisfactory  study  of  those 
suggested  would  suffice.  It  is  probably  well  that  the 
study  of  these  subjects  should  be  begun  hi  the  third 
year  of  the  college  course ;  it  is  certainly  desirable  that 
they  should  be  continued  through  the  fourth  and  the 
graduate  year.  The  work  of  the  graduate  year  should  be 
almost,  if  not  entirely,  professional,  and  this  fact  might 
reduce  the  amount  of  theoretical  professional  work  taken 
in  the  third  and  fourth  years. 

Practical  Professional  Training.  —  The  recommenda- 
tion of  the  committee  concerning  the  practical  training, 
as  given  under  III,  might  well  be  more  positive  and  defi- 
nite. Not  only  should  "  opportunity  for  observation 
and  practice  teaching  with  secondary  pupils  be  given," 
but  such  work  should  be  required,  and  that,  too,  under 
careful,  competent  supervision.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the 
writer  that  the  general  academic  training  and  the  theo- 
retical professional  training,  especially  the  latter,  are 
now  in  a  fair  way  to  take  care  of  themselves  in  any 


264   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

plan  for  adequate  training  that  may  be  formulated ;  and 
that  not  only  the  most  difficult,  but  also  the  most  essen- 
tial point  yet  to  be  developed  is  just  this  matter  of 
actual  teaching  or  what  we  have  called  practical  profes- 
sional training.  That  this  opinion  is  shared  by  others  is 
indicated  by  the  following :  — 

"I  shall  assume  without  further  argument  that  adequate  pro- 
fessional instruction  of  teachers  is  not  exclusively  theoretical,  but 
involves  a  certain  amount  of  practical  work."  l 

"  In  the  professional  preparation  of  the  teacher  practice  is  not  in 
the  least  intended  to  supplant  theory,  but  merely  to  supplement 
it,  to  vitalize  it,  to  render  it  useful,  and  to  give  the  student  some 
training  in  applying  it.  ...  We  have  tried  to  teach  students  to 
swim  by  a  thorough  drill  in  the  principles  of  buoyancy  and 
aquatics,  but  we  have  refused  to  give  them  even  a  swimming  pool 
where  they  might  try  to  see  if  they  could  prove  the  worth  of  these 
principles,  or  even  where  they  could  see  other  swimmers  at  work. 
The  crying  need  to-day  in  our  university  departments  of  education 
is  for  these  'swimming  pools.' " 2 

The  candidate  should  have  an  opportunity,  under  proper 
leadership,  to  observe,  during  his  senior  year,  both  the 
general  management  of  the  school  and  actual  teaching  of 
the  subjects  in  which  he  is  most  interested;  he  should 
have,  during  his  graduate  or  professional  year,  an  oppor- 

1  Dewey,  Relation  of  Theory  to  Practice.  Third  Year  Book  of  the 
National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education.  Part  I,  p.  9. 

*  Farrington,  Observation  and  Practice  Teaching  in  College  and  Uni- 
versity Departments  of  Education.  Papers  of  the  National  Society  of 
College  Teachers  of  Education,  February,  1909. 


A  DESIRABLE    STANDARD    OF   TRAINING  265 

tunity  both  to  observe  such  teaching  and  himself  to  teach 
regularly  at  least  one  of  these  subjects  under  close  and 
competent  supervision.  How  can  such  a  course  of  train- 
ing as  we  have  outlined  be  provided  ?  An  answer  to  this 
question  is  attempted  in  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XI 
A  PLAN  FOR  PROVIDING  THE  DESIRED  TRAINING 

ANY  satisfactory  plan  for  the  training  of  teachers  for 
the  secondary  schools  must  make  provision  for  the  gene- 
ral academic  training,  the  theoretical  professional  tram- 
ing,  and  the  practical  professional  training  discussed  in  the 
preceding  chapter.  The  outline  of  such  a  plan  is  here 
given,  along  with  its  apparent  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages. 

General  Academic  Training.  —  With  the  academic 
training  there  need  be  no  difficulty.  This  is  the  one  part 
of  the  scheme  which  the  colleges  and  universities  have 
always  carried  out  with  more  or  less  effectiveness.  It  is 
only  within  the  last  two  decades  that  anything  more  than 
the  general  college  course  was  thought  necessary.  This 
course  can  be  rendered  much  more  profitable  to  the 
student,  however,  if  he  is  wisely  advised  regarding  it. 
College  students  are  often  ignorant  of  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  the  high  schools  and  of  the  principles  underly- 
ing the  best  arrangement  of  their  work  in  preparation  for 
future  service  as  teachers ;  and,  unfortunately,  the  mem- 
bers of  many  college  faculties  are  scarcely  better  informed. 

266 


A  PLAN  FOR  PROVIDING  THE   DESIRED  TRAINING      267 

The  result  is  that  the  student  often  chooses  his  college 
work  without  due  regard  for  the  requirements  of  the 
calling  upon  which  he  desires  to  enter.  He  should  be  ad- 
vised to  prepare  himself  for  the  teaching  of  at  least  two 
allied  subjects;  first,  because  a  teacher  is  likely  to  do 
better  work,  in  the  long  run,  if  he  teaches  more  than  one 
subject,  and  second,  because  the  practical  needs  of  the 
schools,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  often  require  that  one 
person  shall  teach  several  different  subjects.  He  should 
be  advised  that  some  combinations  of  subjects  are  better 
than  others,  and  that,  in  addition  to  his  specialties,  he 
should  take  such  other  subjects  as  will  give  him  a  broad 
outlook  upon  the  whole  field  of  human  culture  and  at- 
tainment. Through  wise  advice  these  ends  can  be  ac- 
complished without  any  undue  professionalizing  of  the 
general  academic  course.  The  student  should  be  able  to 
make  this  part  of  his  preparation  in  any  good  college. 

The  Theoretical  Professional  Training  presents  more 
difficulties.  The  spirit  of  competition,  added  to  a  grow- 
ing appreciation  of  the  importance  of  the  work,  has  led 
many  higher  institutions  to  introduce  chairs  of  education 
or  to  offer  courses  in  education  which  are  given  by  a  mem- 
ber of  some  other  department.  In  too  many  cases  these 
instructors  have  had  no  special  training  for  their  work. 
In  some  instances  they  have  no  particular  interest  in  it, 
and  they  undertake  it  only  because  it  is  thrust  upon  them. 
Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 


268       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

work  is  unsatisfactory  and  that  it  fails  to  command  the 
respect  either  of  students  or  of  other  members  of  the 
faculty.  Under  similar  conditions  the  same  thing  would 
be  true  of  any  other  subject  in  the  curriculum.  Where 
such  conditions  exist,  it  is,  of  course,  hopeless  to  expect 
that  the  theoretical  professional  training  will  be  satisfac- 
tory. The  fact  that  they  do  exist  in  many  institutions 
need  not  be  taken  as  particularly  discouraging.  With 
such  rapid  development  as  the  subject  of  education  has 
had  within  the  last  decade,  it  is  inevitable  that  there 
should  be  a  lack  of  well-trained  instructors.  Sooner  or 
later  there  will  be  improvement  in  the  quality  —  possibly 
also  a  decrease  in  the  number  —  of  courses  offered. 
Wherever  an  institution,  large  or  small,  takes  proper 
pains  to  secure  competent  instructors  hi  the  department 
of  education,  there  is  no  reason  why  instruction  in  this 
subject  may  not  be  as  satisfactory  as  that  in  any  other, 
or  why  it  may  not  be  given  in  any  good  college  or  uni- 
versity. 

The  Practical  Part  of  the  Professional  Training  is  not 
so  easily  arranged,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  a 
way  to  provide  it  must  be  found.  In  the  first  place,  there 
should  be  opportunity  in  the  senior  year  for  a  considerable 
amount  of  observation  under  the  careful  personal  direc- 
tion of  the  professor  of  pedagogy  or  some  one  appointed 
by  him.  The  general  principles  of  school  and  class  man- 
agement should  be  considered  as  well  as  the  methods  of 


A   PLAN   FOR  PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      269 

teaching  particular  subjects.  Students  might  profitably 
spend  several  days  or  parts  of  days  in  some  secondary 
school  as  the  active  assistant  of  the  teacher  in  charge. 
It  is  important  that  the  school  hi  which  observations  are 
made  should  be  as  good  as  it  is  possible  to  provide.  The 
observation  work  should  be  systematically  directed  by 
the  professor  in  charge,  and  the  result  of  it  should  be  con- 
siderable acquaintance,  on  the  part  of  the  student, 
with  the  general  conditions  and  needs  of  the  school  and 
with  the  methods  of  teaching  the  subjects  in  which 
he  is  interested.  In  American  institutions  this  phase  of 
the  training  work  has  not  received  the  emphasis  that  it 
deserves.  It  is  vitally  important. 

In  the  second  place,  opportunity  must  be  provided  for 
actual  teaching  by  the  candidate.  We  have  seen  that 
hi  Prussia  the  general  academic  training  and  part  of  the 
theoretical  professional  training  are  given  by  the  uni- 
versity, while  the  remainder  of  the  theoretical  profes- 
sional training  and  all  of  the  practical  professional  train- 
ing are  given  in  the  gymnasial  seminar,  which  is  entirely 
separate  from  the  university.  Although  we  cannot  adopt 
the  German  plan  as  a  whole,  there  are  certain  elements 
of  it  which  are  adaptable  to  our  use.  Both  the  obser- 
vation of  good  teaching  and  an  occasional  hour  of  prac- 
tice teaching,  as  they  are  provided  hi  many  university 
departments  of  education,  are  valuable,  but  they  are 
insufficient.  The  candidate  needs  real  teaching  in  a  real 


270   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

school  under  close  and  competent  supervision.  Under 
existing  circumstances  the  high  school  cannot  of  itself 
undertake  the  training  of  its  own  teachers,  but  why 
should  it  not  cooperate  with  the  university  in  doing  it? 
The  closer  the  connection  between  the  university  depart- 
ment of  education  and  the  high  school,  the  better  it  will 
be  for  all  parties  concerned.  The  theoretical  work  of  the 
department  of  education  would  be  steadied  and  rendered 
more  practical  if  it  were  every  day  in  touch  with  the 
actual  work  of  the  school ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
school  would  be  stimulated  by  having  its  work  daily 
subjected  to  the  criticism  of  those  who  are  making  a 
sympathetic  study  of  the  theory  of  education.  The  fol- 
lowing plan  is  proposed :  — 

Cooperation  of  College  and  School. — Let  the  university 
department  of  education  and  the  schools,  especially  the 
public  high  schools,  combine  their  efforts  in  providing 
opportunities  for  the  practical  training  of  high  school 
teachers.  The  candidate  will  come  to  the  close  of  the 
four-year  college  course  with  good  academic  training  and 
with  theoretical  professional  training  that  should  include 
at  least  elementary  courses  in  the  history  of  education, 
educational  psychology,  the  principles  of  education,  sec- 
ondary education,  and  considerable  wisely  directed  work 
in  observation.  In  consequence  of  this  training  he  will 
be  better  prepared  for  teaching  than  are  a  majority  of  the 
teachers  now  at  work  in  the  high  schools.  Let  him  be 


A  PLAN   FOR   PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      271 

given  a  position  as  candidate  teacher  in  some  high  school, 
with  not  to  exceed  ten  hours  of  teaching  and  a  propor- 
tional amount  of  responsibility  in  the  general  duties  of  the 
school.  With  reference  to  these  general  duties,  let  him  be 
responsible  to  the  principal  of  the  school,  just  as  is  any 
other  teacher.  Let  him  be  known  to  the  pupils  and  to 
his  colleagues  as  a  teacher  with  full  authority  and  respon- 
sibility as  far  as  his  service  goes.  In  general  matters  let 
the  principal  give  to  him  such  special  care  and  oversight 
as  he  would  naturally  give  to  any  new  and  inexperienced 
teacher ;  but  in  his  classroom  teaching  let  him  be  under 
the  supervision  of  an  expert  and  experienced  teacher 
of  the  subject,  who  shall  be  a  member  both  of  the  univer- 
sity department  of  education  and  of  the  school  faculty. 
This  supervisory  instructor  should  criticize  the  lesson 
plans  and  the  teaching  of  the  candidate,  show  the  relation 
of  principles  to  practice,  give  demonstrations  of  his  own 
way  of  teaching,  and  assist  the  candidate  in  every  way 
possible.  The  practical  work  of  the  candidate  will  oc- 
cupy approximately  one  third  of  his  time,  but  it  should 
be  emphasized  as  the  center  around  which  all  the  other 
work  of  the  year  is  to  be  gathered.  Instead  of  being  an 
incidental  exercise,  as  are  occasional  hours  of  practice 
teaching,  it  becomes  the  serious  work  of  the  year. 

The  professional  studies  which  the  candidate  will  pursue 
along  with  his  teaching  will  include  observation  of  the 
work  of  other  classes,  especially  in  the  subjects  in  which 


272       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

he  is  interested ;  methods  of  teaching  his  subjects ;  school 
organization  and  administration;  and  such  other  sub- 
jects as  he  may  choose.  At  least  two  thirds  of  his  time 
will  be  devoted  to  professional  rather  than  purely  aca- 
demic work. 

The  Professor  of  Education. — In  the  management  of  the 
practical  training  of  the  candidate,  three  instructors  will 
be  concerned :  the  professor  of  education,  the  high  school 
principal,  and  the  supervising  instructor.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary for  them  to  work  in  harmonious  cooperation.  As  the 
responsible  director  of  the  department  work,  the  professor 
of  education  must  know  intimately  the  students  in  his 
department  and  must  be  responsible  for  their  admission 
to  the  practical  work ;  he  must  keep  in  close  touch  with 
the  practical  work  which  each  candidate  is  doing;  he 
must  have  the  veto  power  in  matters  which  seem  to  him 
to  concern  the  success  of  his  department;  and  he  must 
have  authority  in  the  selection  of  the  supervising  instruc- 
tors. He  must  be  able  to  keep  a  firm  hold  on  large  es- 
sentials and  at  the  same  time  to  give  a  free  hand  to  his 
colleagues  in  the  details  of  their  work.  Since  the  welfare 
of  the  school  and  the  welfare  of  particular  university 
departments  as  well  as  that  of  his  own  department  must 
be  conserved,  there  will  be  abundant  opportunity  for  the 
exercise  of  tact  and  good  management. 

The  high  school  principal  (or,  in  small  schools,  the 
superintendent)  would  have,  under  ordinary  conditions, 


A  PLAN   FOR  PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      273 

a  relatively  small  but  a  very  important  part  in  the  work. 
As  the  responsible  director  of  the  high  school  he  should 
have,  with  the  approval  of  the  managing  board,  a  voice  in 
the  admission  of  candidates  to  his  school ;  he  should  have 
the  authority  to  require  their  withdrawal  in  case  their 
work  is  of  such  character  as  to  injure  the  school;  he 
should  have  a  hand  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
candidates'  work  in  the  school ;  he  should  have  author- 
ity over  the  candidates  just  as  over  his  regular  teachers 
during  the  hours  of  their  service ;  and  he  should  be  re- 
sponsible for  such  assistance  as  he  can  render  them  during 
these  times.  If  circumstances  permit,  he  might  himself 
serve  as  supervising  instructor,  but  he  would  not  usually 
be  able  to  do  this  on  account  of  the  multitude  of  duties 
connected  with  his  office.  Perhaps  the  most  serious  criti- 
cism that  can  be  passed  upon  the  work  of  the  Prussian 
gymnasial  seminar  is  that  the  director,  who  is  also  prin- 
cipal of  the  school,  does  not  have  enough  time  to  devote 
to  it.  We  should  avoid  this  difficulty  and  should  call 
upon  the  principal  for  such  service  only  as  can  be  rendered 
in  a  more  or  less  incidental  way.  If  he  has  faith  in  the 
plan  and  tact  in  its  execution,  he  can  render  valuable 
assistance  without  adding  greatly  to  his  own  burdens. 

The  supervising  teacher  is  the  new  factor  in  the  scheme. 
He  must  be  one  whose  scholarship  commands  the  confi- 
dence of  his  colleagues  in  the  university,  whose  teaching 
ability  commands  the  confidence  of  both  teachers  and 


274       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

pupils  in  the  high  school,  and  whose  personality  is 
pleasing  to  all.  It  is  immaterial  whether  he  is  prima- 
rily a  member  of  the  university  faculty  or  of  the  high 
school  corps.  There  are  few  enough  qualified  persons 
to  be  found  in  either  place  at  present,  and  securing 
them  would  necessitate  selection  and  training.  The 
necessary  combination  of  pedagogic  and  academic  in- 
terest and  training  is  found  none  too  often,  but  a  recog- 
nition of  the  need  would  produce  the  type  of  instructor  re- 
quired for  this  work.  There  should  be  such  an  instructor 
for  each  of  the  main  groups  of  subjects  taught  in  the 
high  school.  Probably  the  best  results  would  be  obtained 
if  part  of  these  instructors  belonged  to  the  high  school 
corps  and  part  to  the  university  faculty.  Their  teaching 
in  the  high  school  might  be  used  for  the  observation  work 
required  of  all  candidates  in  the  senior  college  year,  hi 
which  case  the  pedagogical  service  rendered  would  be 
more  or  less  incidental,  but  it  would  be  none  the  less  effec- 
live.  The  actual  teaching  of  subject  matter  in  the  high 
school  and  in  the  university  would  have  to  be  done  by 
some  one  else  if  it  were  not  done  by  them.  Therefore,  the 
only  expense  would  be  the  cost  of  the  purely  supervisory 
work  which  they  would  do,  and  the  paying  of  a  larger 
salary  to  an  instructor  of  this  type  than  would  be  needed 
for  the  ordinary  instructor.  These  men  would  be,  in  the 
best  sense  of  the  term,  teachers  of  teachers,  and  the  ut- 
most care  should  be  used  in  selecting  them. 


A    PLAN   FOR   PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      275 

The  foregoing  scheme  is  proposed  as  a  simple,  practical 
plan  for  the  adequate  training  of  high  school  teachers. 
It  does  not  contemplate  the  training  of  administrative 
leaders.  Many  college  departments  of  education  or 
schools  of  education  will  desire  to  offer  more  courses  than 
the  minimum  number  indicated  as  necessary;  and  many 
students,  especially  those  who  are  preparing  themselves 
for  administrative  work,  will  desire  to  take  these  addi- 
tional courses.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  in- 
stitutions that  will  gladly  provide  for  such  work  as  may 
be  necessary  for  the  training  of  high  school  teachers,  but 
they  do  not  wish  to  develop  a  complete  professional  school 
for  the  training  of  leaders.  In  a  small  college  two  mem- 
bers of  the  department  of  education  and  six  supervising 
instructors  could  carry  the  theoretical  work  of  the  depart- 
ment, and  care  for  a  dozen  teaching  candidates.  If  one 
half  of  the  standard  colleges  and  universities  of  the 
country  should  turn  out  annually  an  average  of  five 
teachers  trained  according  to  the  above  plan,  the  effect 
upon  high  school  teaching  would  soon  be  felt.  Of  course 
many  institutions  could  provide  opportunities  for  a  much 
larger  number. 

State  Supervision.  —  The  plan  proposed  is  immediately 
adaptable  to  any  good  college  or  university  and  any  ad- 
jacent secondary  school  of  high  grade  that  are  willing  to 
cooperate  seriously  and  intelligently  in  the  work  of  tram- 
ing  high  school  teachers;  but  its  complete  development 


276       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

will  not  be  effected  until  the  state  establishes  adequate 
standards  of  certification  and  then  assumes  supervisory 
control  of  the  institutions  in  which  teachers  receive  their 
professional  training.  Legal  standards  of  certification  are 
probably  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  general  adoption 
of  so  extensive  a  plan  for  the  training  of  teachers.  Until 
such  legislation  is  enacted  the  state  will  have  no  occasion 
to  supervise  the  cooperative  work  of  schools  and  colleges, 
and  all  that  is  done  before  that  time  will  be  voluntary, 
and  consequently  optional  in  character.  But  when  the 
state  establishes  a  standard  of  training  and  pays  money 
to  secure  it,  there  must,  of  course,  be  state  supervision, 
and  it  should  be  exercised  over  all  the  institutions  that 
attempt  to  do  the  work.  State  institutions  would  prob- 
ably have  certain  advantages,  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
are  part  of  the  public  educational  system,  but  there 
seems  to  be  no  sufficient  reason  why  private  colleges  and 
schools  might  not  do  the  work  successfully  under  state 
supervision.  The  assistance  of  all  available  colleges, 
universities,  and  schools  is  needed.  State  supervision  is 
now  being  exercised  in  California,  Indiana  (for  the  ele- 
mentary schools),  and  New  York. 

The  State  Examination.  —  There  remains  the  question, 
whether  in  addition  to  the  five  years  of  training  which 
the  candidate  receives,  there  should  be  required  of  him  a 
final  state  examination  such  as  is  required  of  the  German 
candidate.  Far  more  important  than  any  examination  is 


A   PLAN  FOR   PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      277 

the  training  itself,  and  if  it  were  well  done,  with  due  regard 
to  the  elimination  of  unsuitable  candidates,  as  well  as  to 
the  promotion  of  those  who  are  capable,  the  examination 
might  be  omitted.  For  the  present,  at  least,  it  may  be 
regarded  as  unnecessary  for  those  who  have  taken,  under 
state  supervision,  such  a  course  of  training  as  has  been 
indicated.  Whether  the  increased  stimulus  and  safety, 
which  a  dignified,  serious  examination  affords,  will  in  the 
future  be  regarded  as  desirable,  may  be  left  an  open 
question  until  there  is  a  greater  abundance  of  adequately 
trained  teachers  than  exists  at  present.  Apart  from  the 
question  of  feasibility  under  existing  circumstances, 
the  logic  of  the  situation  seems  to  require  it  for  teachers, 
no  less  than  for  lawyers  and  physicians.  It  will  not  soon 
be  possible  in  the  United  States,  however,  to  require 
absolutely  of  all  candidates  such  a  course  of  training  as 
has  been  suggested.  For  those  who  have  not  had  such 
training,  but  who  are  nevertheless  capable  of  successful 
teaching  in  the  secondary  schools,  the  examination  should 
remain  as  a  means  of  showing  equivalent  culture  and 
ability. 

The  Life  Certificate.  —  It  is  doubtful  whether  a  life 
certificate  should  ever  be  issued  by  the  state  until  the 
candidate  has  had  a  successful  teaching  experience  of  at 
least  two  years  including  the  year  of  practical  professional 
training.  It  is  only  reasonable,  however,  that  when  he 
has  honorably  fulfilled  adequate  professional  require- 


278       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

ments,  he  should  receive  the  legal  recognition  that  is 
due  a  professional  man,  in  the  form  of  a  life  certificate 
to  teach  in  the  public  high  schools.  In  case  the  holder 
does  not  teach  for  a  series  of  years,  recognition  of  the 
validity  of  the  certificate  might  reasonably  be  made 
optional  with  school  authorities. 

Summary.  —  The  essentials  of  the  plan  which  has  been 
proposed  for  the  training  and  certification  of  high  school 
teachers  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 

1.  A  five-year  course  of  combined  academic  and  pro- 
fessional training  following  the  completion  of  a  good  four- 
year  preparatory  course. 

2.  Such  study  of  two  or  three  subjects  as  will  give  the 
candidate  scholarship  sufficient  to  teach  them  effectively 
in  the  high  school. 

3.  Such  study  of  other  subjects  as  will  give  him  a 
broad  outlook  upon  other  departments  of  scholarship  and 
upon  life. 

4.  At  least  an  elementary  study,  during  the  third  and 
fourth  years  of  the  college  course,  of  the  history  of  educa- 
tion,  educational  psychology,  principles  of  education, 
secondary  education,  and  observation  of  actual  teaching. 

5.  One  year  of  graduate  study  (which  might  well  be 
called  the  professional  year) ,  in  which  he  shall  divide  his 
time  between  actual  teaching  under  careful  supervision 
and  additional  theoretical  professional  study,  the  former 
to  be  regarded  as  fundamentally  important. 


A   PLAN   FOR   PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      279 

6.  For  the  satisfactory  completion  of  such  a  course  of 
training  the  university  should  give  a  special  professional 
teacher's  certificate;  and  when  the  work  is  properly 
organized  under  state  authority  and  supervision,  the 
state  should  give  a  professional  life  certificate  to  teach  in 
the  high  school. 

Advantages  of  the  Plan.  —  i .  First  should  be  mentioned 
its  effectiveness  from  the  pedagogical  point  of  view.  The 
plan  combines  the  strongest  elements  of  the  present 
American  system — academic  and  theoretical  professional 
instruction  by  university  professors,  with  the  strongest 
element  of  the  Prussian  system  —  cadet  teaching  in  a 
real  school  under  normal  conditions,  carefully  super- 
vised by  expert  teachers  and  administrators.  The  candi- 
date has  reached  the  stage  in  his  development  when  he 
should  be  more  interested  in  the  practical  than  in  the 
theoretical  side  of  the  vocation,  and  this  year  of  com- 
bined effort  will  serve  to  bridge  the  gap  between  theory 
and  practice.  He  has  sufficient  maturity  and  training  to 
enable  him  to  assume  a  critical  attitude  towards  his  own 
efforts  and  to  profit  greatly  by  observing  the  work  of 
others  and  by  having  their  criticism  of  his  own  work. 
The  practical  work  and  the  theoretical  studies  will  each 
be  illuminated  by  the  other,  and  the  candidate  will  have 
time  and  opportunity  to  see  their  mutual  relationship  in 
a  way  that  will  prove  helpful  in  his  whole  subsequent 
career.  The  close  relating  of  the  theoretical  and  the 


280       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

practical  will  remove  the  ground  for  the  more  or  less  justi- 
fied criticism  that  theoretical  pedagogy  is  of  little  value 
because  it  is  so  far  removed  from  practice.  Finally, 
the  excellent  result  of  this  combination  of  theory  and 
practice  in  those  individual  cases  in  which  it  has  been 
made  as  a  matter  of  necessity  seems  to  be  empirical  proof 
of  the  value  of  the  plan. 

2.  The  plan  is  adaptable  to  any  community  where  there 
is  a  college  or  university  and  a  secondary  school  which 
are  prepared  to  cooperate  heartily  in  a  serious  effort  to 
provide   proper   training   for   future   secondary   school 
teachers.     Beyond  a  certain  minimum  limit  the  success 
of  the  enterprise  would  not  depend  upon  the  size  of  the 
institutions,  though  there  would  be  manifest  advantages 
where   the   cooperating   high   schools   were   abundant. 
A  private  secondary  school  might  cooperate  as  effectively 
as  a  public  high  school,  but  the  training  received  there 
would  reflect  the  spirit  of  the  private  school  rather  than 
that  of  the  high  school.     In  most  schools,  unfortunately, 
there  is  such  a  change  of  teachers  each  year  that  candi- 
dates could  be  admitted  without  unduly  disturbing  the 
stability  of  the  school.    There  seems  no  good  reason 
why  a  school  might  not  definitely  arrange  to  use  a  speci- 
fied number  of  candidates  each  year. 

3.  It  involves  no  great  financial  outlay.     Buildings  and 
other  material  equipment  already  exist.     No  new  teachers 
would  be  needed,  for  the  additional  supervisory  duties 


A  PLAN   FOR  PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING       28 1 

performed  by  the  high  school  principal  and  the  supervis- 
ing instructor  would  be  more  than  offset  by  the  services 
rendered  by  the  candidates.  Possible  sources  of  increased 
expense  would  be  as  follows :  (a)  It  would  probably  be 
necessary  to  pay  the  supervising  instructor  a  higher 
salary  than  would  be  paid  to  the  teacher  who  did  his  work 
under  the  usual  conditions.  (6)  It  might  be  necessary 
to  pay  the  school  a  bonus  for  its  share  in  the  enterprise. 
The  state  could  well  afford  to  meet  such  expense  if  it 
were  found  to  be  necessary,  (c)  It  might  be  necessary, 
for  a  time  at  least,  to  pay  the  candidates  for  their  service. 
This  should  be  done,  but  the  necessity  of  doing  it  would 
depend  upon  the  number  of  applicants  for  this  sort  of 
training.  In  any  case  the  total  expense  for  all  purposes 
need  not  be  great. 

!  4.  The  stimulating  effect  of  this  teaching  under  criti- 
cism would  be  helpful  in  all  the  work  of  the  high  school. 
Every  teacher  would  be  subject  to  visitation  and  criti- 
cism. He  would  be  compelled  by  force  of  circumstances 
to  keep  in  touch  with  pedagogical  thought  regarding  the 
subjects  that  he  teaches,  and  if  he  is  a  true  teacher,  he 
would  take  delight  in  making  each  day's  work  as  good 
as  possible.  The  experience  of  a  few  schools  where 
the  plan  has  been  tried  indicates  so  great  improve- 
ment hi  the  spirit  and  attainments  of  the  school  that 
even  the  parents  have  recognized  it  and  have  approved 
the  plan. 


282   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

5.  The  steadying  effect  of  daily  contact  with  the  practi- 
cal needs  of  the  school  would  strengthen  the  work  of 
the  university  department  of  education.      It  cannot 
be  justly  claimed  that  all  the  legitimate  work  of  this  de- 
partment should  be  tested  by  the  rule  of  practice,  but 
it  should  show  considerate  regard  for  actual  needs  and 
conditions. 

6.  A  real  school  of  high  grade  is  the  best  possible  place 
in  which  a  candidate  can  receive  his  practical  professional 
training.     It  is  far  better  than  any  mere  practice  school 
which  is  conducted  more  for  the  purpose  of  training 
teachers  than  training  pupils. 

"For  the  training  of  the  average  teacher  the  regular  secondary 
schools  are  far  better  [than  special  practice  or  experimental  schools 
belonging  to  the  university],  since  they  provide  experience  under 
normal  conditions,  and  the  amount  of  practice  teaching  would  not 
be  enough  to  interfere  with  the  character  of  the  instruction  and 
the  organization  of  the  school.  Training  in  experimental  schools 
is  apt  to  be  abnormal  and  not  to  give  either  the  character  or  the 
quantity  of  the  experience  needed  by  the  pupil  teachers.  In  a 
state  system  of  schools  which  includes  the  university,  there  should 
be  no  objection  to  such  an  arrangement.  With  private  colleges 
it  would  be  somewhat  different,  but  could  probably  be  arranged."  * 

7.  The  high  schools  would  have  a  good  opportunity 
to  recruit  their  own  regular  teaching  force  from  the  ranks 
of   the  candidates  with  whose  qualifications  they  are 

1  Monroe,  Paul,  "  The  Organization  of  the  Department  of  Education 
in  Relation  to  the  Other  Departments  in  Colleges  and  Universities," 
Journal  of  Pedagogy,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  124. 


A  PLAN   FOR  PROVIDING   THE    DESIRED   TRAINING      283 

already  well  acquainted.  This  would  doubtless  be  less 
uncertain,  and  consequently  more  satisfactory,  than 
choosing  teachers  of  longer  experience  with  whom  they 
were  not  so  well  acquainted. 

Objections  to  the  Plan.  —  i.  The  successful  execution 
of  the  plan  would  require  an  amount  of  cooperation  be- 
tween university  authorities  on  the  one  hand  and  school 
authorities  on  the  other,  that  it  might  be  difficult  to 
secure.  Without  such  cooperation  the  plan  would  cer- 
tainly fail.  There  would  be  required  on  the  part  of  those 
concerned  a  clear  appreciation  of  the  need  of  training 
teachers,  faith  in  the  plan  proposed,  mutual  personal 
confidence  and  consideration,  and  enough  tact  to  avoid 
impossible  situations. 

2.  Perhaps  the  greatest  menace  to  the  success  of  the 
plan  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  would  doubtless  be  used  by 
institutions  which  are  not  qualified  to  do  the  work 
thoroughly,  and  thus  the  scheme  might  be  brought  into 
ill  repute.  The  plan  is  so  adaptable  that,  were  it  once 
taken  up  by  a  few  institutions  which  are  well  equipped  to 
carry  it  through  successfully,  it  would  soon  be  adopted 
by  other  institutions  whose  equipment  and  standards  are 
inferior.  This  difficulty  could  be  met  only  by  proper  state 
supervision  of  the  scheme,  in  some  such  way  as  prevails 
now  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada.  Toronto  Uni- 
versity and  Queens  University  are  authorized  to  carry  on 
the  work  of  training  high  school  teachers  under  condi- 


284   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

tions  definitely  prescribed  by  the  Government,  and  when 
the  work  is  done,  Government  recognition  is  given. 

3.  Since  the  plan  contemplates  the  use  of  those  colleges 
and  secondary  schools  only  which  are  located  near  enough 
together  to  make  speedy  intercommunication  easy,  not 
enough  teachers  could  be  trained  in  them.    To  this  ob- 
jection it  may  be  replied  that  if  the  plan  were  adopted 
by  all  those  institutions  which  can  meet  these  conditions 
perfectly,  it  would  mark  a  great  improvement  over  the 
existing  situation.     It  is  possible  also  that,  with  experi- 
ence, it  might  be  extended  and  modified  so  as  to  include 
some  schools  located  at  considerable  distance  from  the 
college.    The  candidate  might  teach  in  such  a  school 
during  one  semester,  carrying  on  at  the  same  time  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  university  work  in  absentia,  and  return  to 
the  university  for  the  other  semester.    Work  of  this  kind 
is  now  being  done  by  Harvard  University  and  by  the 
University  of  Wisconsin. 

4.  It  might  be  impossible  to  provide  opportunities  for 
cadet  teaching  for  all  who  desired  to  undertake  it,  and 
consequently  a  painful  process  of  selection  would  be  neces- 
sary.   Such  circumstances  sometimes  arise  in  connection 
with  other  subjects,  however,  and  the  most  competent 
are  admitted  to  the  desired  course.    That  it  might  work 
real  hardship  in  some  cases  may  be  granted  without  in  any 
way  condemning  the  ultimate  wisdom  of  the  procedure. 
One  of  the  greatest  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  proper 


A  PLAN   FOR   PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      285 

training  of  teachers  would  come  from  the  winnowing  out 
of  those  who,  for  sufficient  reason,  are  not  adapted  for  the 
work,  and  the  sooner  it  comes  the  better  for  all  parties 
concerned. 

5.  Enough  competent  supervising  instructors  are  not 
available  either  among  high  school  teachers  or  among  the 
members  of  university  faculties.    A  very  real  difficulty, 
but  the  demand  would  create  the  supply.     The  position 
would  establish  a  new  and  desirable  rank  among  high 
school  teachers,  and  it  would  open  a  new  field  for  the 
efforts  of  university  instructors. 

6.  Parents   would   object   to   having   their   children 
practiced    upon    by    inexperienced    teachers.    Another 
real  difficulty,  but  not  so  serious  as  it  is  often  thought  to 
be.     In  many  schools,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  the 
children  are  taught  by  inexperienced  teachers  who  have 
had  no  professional  training,  who  are  heavily  loaded  with 
teaching,  and  whose  work  receives  no  criticism  from  a  more 
experienced  colleague.     These  teachers  are  "practicing" 
quite  as  much  as  the  candidates  whom  we  are  considering, 
and  they  are  doing  it  under  conditions  far  less  favorable 
to  themselves  or  to  their  pupils.     When  it  is  remem- 
bered that,  under  the  plan  proposed,  the  candidates  are 
teaching  every  lesson  under   the  sympathetic,  critical 
supervision  of  an  experienced  teacher  of  the  subject,  who 
has  been  chosen  for  this  supervision  just  because  he  is  a 
superior  teacher,  the  probability  of  unsatisfactory  teach- 


286   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

ing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  If  the  training  system 
did  not  exist  in  the  school,  the  superior  teacher  would, 
in  many  cases,  not  be  there,  and  pupils  would  never  have 
the  advantage  of  his  skill.  With  such  an  explanation  of 
the  situation  the  objections  of  parents  can  usually  be  met. 
But  even  in  those  cases  where  they  persist,  the  manifest 
advantage  to  the  schools  as  a  whole  is  so  great  that  the 
inconsiderate  objections  of  parents  may  well  be  over- 
ruled. 

7.  The  presence  of  inexperienced  candidates   hi  the 
school  is  a  disturbing  factor  because  of  the  constant 
uncertainty  concerning  the  success  of  their  efforts.     If 
their  work  is  properly  supervised,  this  need  not  be  a  seri- 
ous matter,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  previous  objection, 
the  advantage  to  the  schools  as  a  whole  is  so  great  that 
it  more  than  compensates  for  any  temporary  disturbance. 

8.  It  is  not  easy  to  adjust  the  working  hours  of  candi- 
dates and  supervising  instructors  so  that  both  the  univer- 
sity work  and  the  high  school  work  can  be  properly  done. 
This  is  an  administrative  difficulty  which  could  not,  in 
every  case,  be  easily  adjusted,  but  it  would  probably 
not  prove  to  be  a  serious  matter. 

The  University  Training  School.  —  No  mention  has 
thus  far  been  made  of  the  place  of  the  distinctive  univer- 
sity training  school  in  the  scheme  that  has  been  proposed. 
The  advantages  of  such  a  school  are  that  it  is  entirely 
under  the  control  of  the  department  of  education ;  it  is 


A  PLAN   FOR   PROVIDING   THE   DESIRED   TRAINING      287 

conveniently  located ;  it  can  be  used  for  purposes  of  ex- 
perimentation; and  its  work  can  be  arranged  with  refer- 
ence to  the  needs  of  the  department  of  education.  It  can 
be  used  for  a  limited  amount  of  cadet  teaching  in  the  same 
way  as  the  high  school.  All  things  considered,  it  is  a  dis- 
tinct advantage  to  the  work  to  have  such  a  school.  As  it 
is  likely  not  to  be  large,  however,  it  is  more  valuable 
for  purposes  of  observation  than  for  cadet  teaching.  In 
the  former  sphere  it  should  be  extremely  helpful.  But  it 
alone  is  not  sufficient  for  the  satisfactory  practical  train- 
ing of  teachers ;  it  lacks  some  advantages  in  comparison 
with  the  regular  public  high  school ;  and  it  is  not  ab- 
solutely necessary  where  cooperative  arrangements  can 
be  made  with  a  local  secondary  school. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CONCLUSION 

THE  American  people  have  great  faith  in  the  value  of 
education,  and  they  are  willing  to  pay  liberally  for  the 
support  of  their  schools.  There  is  yet  lacking,  however, 
adequate  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  the  worth  of  a 
school  is  determined  more  by  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher 
than  by  all  other  factors  combined,  and  that  the  work 
of  the  high  school  teacher  is  serious  business,  requiring 
for  its  successful  performance  not  only  good  native  abil- 
ity, but  thorough  training  also.  Germany  and  several 
other  European  nations  (see  Appendix)  have  acted  more 
wisely  than  our  own  country  in  this  matter.  They  have 
recognized  the  strategic  importance  of  the  work  in  the 
secondary  schools;  they  have  fixed  high  standards  of 
qualifications  for  their  teachers ;  they  have  provided  the 
best  means  that  they  could  devise  for  the  training  of  these 
teachers ;  and  they  have  deliberately  made  the  position  of 
teacher  in  the  higher  schools  so  attractive  financially 
and  socially  that  men  of  high  character  and  ability  have 
been  drawn  into  it.  For  these  nations  it  means  the  per- 
petuation of  the  best  hi  their  aristocracy.  It  is  quite 

288 


CONCLUSION  289 

time  that  we  should  take  more  seriously  what  is  really 
an  important  factor  in  the  welfare  of  our  American  de- 
mocracy and  adopt  adequate  measures  for  the  training 
and  support  of  the  teachers  in  our  secondary  schools. 

Even  if  such  a  course  of  training  as  we  have  outlined 
were  now  offered  by  the  colleges  and  universities,  it  is 
probable  that  no  great  number  of  candidates  for  the 
teacher's  office  would  pursue  it  to  the  end  until  the  legal 
requirements  for  certification  are  higher  than  they  now 
are ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  enough  would  take  it  to 
test  the  practicability  of  the  plan  and  the  value  of  the 
training  given.  If  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the 
country  would  express  their  conviction  of  the  need  of 
some  such  standard  of  qualifications  for  high  school 
teachers  as  has  been  indicated  in  the  foregoing  discussion, 
and  would  then,  to  the  limit  of  their  ability,  support  their 
convictions  by  the  establishment  of  departments  of  edu- 
cation that  would  provide  opportunities  for  such  training, 
they  would  give  to  the  ambitious  individual  an  opportu- 
nity to  secure  the  desired  training,  and  they  would  place 
themselves  in  position  to  join  hands  with  high  school 
officials,  and  school  authorities  generally,  in  urging  the 
state  to  adopt  a  satisfactory  professional  standard  for  the 
training  and  certification  of  high  school  teachers. 

In  the  light  of  the  sentiment  and  conditions  existing  hi 
most  of  the  states  at  the  present  time  the  standard  pro- 
posed must,  of  course,  be  regarded  by  the  practical  person 


290       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

as  ideal  and  not  to  be  attained  at  once.  Some  of  the  steps 
by  which  it  will  be  reached  are  indicated  in  the  various 
standards  now  existing  in  the  different  states  for  the 
training  and  certification  of  high  school  teachers.  In 
many  of  the  states  the  first  step  towards  the  establish- 
ment of  a  special  high  school  certificate  has  not  been 
taken.  California,  on  the  other  hand,  has  practically 
reached  the  standard  proposed,  and  a  few  other  states 
are  approaching  it.  The  experience  of  other  nations 
and  a  rational  view  of  our  own  needs  testify  that  this 
standard  is  the  lowest  that  should  be  accepted  when 
the  time  shall  be  ripe  for  the  establishment  of  a  profes- 
sional standard,  and  that  all  temporary  legislation  should 
look  forward  to  this  end.  It  is  probably  not  too  high 
for  early  adoption  in  some  states,  and  it  is  certainly  not 
too  high  to  be  adopted  by  those  colleges  and  universities 
which  believe  in  the  establishment  of  a  truly  professional 
standard  of  preparation  for  high  school  teachers  and 
which  desire  to  be  leaders  in  providing  the  needed  tram- 
ing.  Development  is  certain  to  be  slow,  but  it  is  incum- 
bent upon  individuals,  educational  institutions,  and  the 
state  to  make  sure  that  it  is  not  slower  than  it  ought 
to  be.  In  state  certification  California  leads  the  way. 
In  institutional  activity  Brown  University  and  the 
Providence  high  schools  are  making  an  enviable  record. 
Let  us  hope  that  other  states  and  other  institutions  will 
speedily  follow  their  example. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 

THE  TRAINING  OP  TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 
IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

Austria.  —  The  provisions  for  the  training  of  secondary 
school  teachers  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  work 
are  much  the  same  as  those  prevailing  in  Germany.  A  few 
points  of  difference  may  be  mentioned.  The  candidate  must 
have  spent  at  least  seven  semesters  in  the  university  before  he 
is  permitted  to  apply  for  the  state  examination.  Only  one 
year  of  practical  training  is  required,  but  two  are  permitted 
and  encouraged.  This  period  is  called  the  Probejahr,  or  in  the 
second  case,  the  extended  Probejahr.  Formal  seminar  meet- 
ings are  not  required  as  in  Prussia,  but,  under  the  direction 
of  an  experienced  teacher  to  whom  he  has  been  assigned  for 
guidance,  the  candidate  visits  classes,  gives  instruction,  and 
engages  in  frequent  conferences  with  his  superiors  concerning 
his  work.  A  long  written  report  is  not  required,  but  only 
"  written  notes  (Elaborate)  according  to  circumstances." 
The  certificate  given  to  the  candidate  at  the  close  of  the  Probe- 
jahr must  be  signed  by  the  professors  and  class  teachers  to 
whose  supervision  he  was  assigned  as  well  as  by  the  director 
of  the  school. 

Finland  requires  graduation  from  the  university,  and  if  a 
candidate  expects  to  attain  a  position  in  the  highest  rank, 

293 


294       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

he  must  have  won  the  highest  honors  in  his  university  career. 
He  will  have  some  advantages  if  he  attains  the  doctor's  degree 
also.  Following  the  university  course  he  must  spend  a  year 
in  practical  training  at  one  of  the  Normal  Lyceums  or  second- 
ary schools,  where  he  observes,  teaches,  listens  to  lectures 
by  a  university  professor,  and  is  engaged  in  frequent  confer- 
ences concerning  his  work.  At  the  close  of  the  year  of  train- 
ing he  must  pass  an  examination  in  pedagogic  theory,  and 
either  then  or  later,  an  examination  in  practical  work.  Great 
importance  is  attached  to  the  latter. 

Sweden.  —  A  teacher  hi  the  secondary  schools  must  be  a 
graduate  of  a  university ;  he  must  have  made  special  prepara- 
tion in  the  three  subjects  that  he  expects  to  teach ;  and  he 
must  spend  one  year  after  graduation  in  a  higher  school,  ob- 
serving and  teaching  in  all  the  classes  of  the  school  in  turn. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  highest  positions,  he  must  have  taken 
the  doctor's  degree.  In  the  year  of  practical  training  he  is 
under  the  supervision  of  teachers  to  whose  guidance  he  has 
been  assigned.  "  Proof  "  lessons  are  followed  by  criticism,  as 
in  the  Prussian  seminar.  Lectures  on  the  theory  of  education 
are  sometimes  given  by  a  university  instructor,  but  they  need 
not  have  any  particular  connection  with  the  practical  work. 
The  emphasis  is  placed  upon  scholarship  in  the  subjects  to  be 
taught  and  upon  practical  observation  and  experience  in  the 
schools. 

Denmark  requires  a  university  course  which  demands  five 
or  six  years  for  its  completion,  followed  by  six  months  of 
professional  training.  The  candidate  hears  lectures  on  the 
theory  of  education  and  teaches  in  one  of  the  great  public 


APPENDIX  295 

schools  under  the  supervision  of  the  director  and  the  subject 
teachers  to  whom  he  is  assigned.  At  the  close  of  the  period 
he  must  pass  an  examination  in  both  theory  and  practice. 
In  the  practical  examination  the  examining  commission  ob- 
serve his  instruction  during  two  hours  of  teaching  in  each 
subject.  He  must  be  prepared  in  one  principal  subject  and 
two  related  subjects. 

Norway  has  requirements  which  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  Denmark. 

France.  — The  minimum  scholastic  requirement  for  teachers 
in  the  secondary  schools  of  France  is  the  attainment  of  the 
licence,  which  is  secured  after  two  or  three  years  of  university 
study  following  the  completion  of  the  secondary  school  course, 
and  which  corresponds  in  general  to  the  American  A.B. 
degree.  There  are  two  kinds  of  secondary  schools,  the  col- 
lege and  the  lycee.  The  latter  is  of  higher  rank  than  the  for- 
mer, although  the  certificate  from  either  admits  to  the  univer- 
sity. There  are  three  grades  of  instructors  in  these  schools, 
based  upon  scholastic  qualifications,  experience,  and  teaching 
ability.  The  highest  rank  is  that  of  professor  (professeur 
agrege),  and  it  is  held  by  those  who,  besides  having  a  licence, 
have  passed  successfully  a  very  severe  competitive  exami- 
nation (agregation).  It  requires  at  least  two  years  of  work 
after  a  man  has  received  the  licence  before  he  is  prepared  to 
enter  for  this  examination.  Competition  is  open  to  all,  re- 
gardless of  age  or  position,  and  many  succeed  late  in  life. 
Those  who  pass  this  examination  successfully  have  the  rank 
of  professor,  and  they  have  a  legal  right  to  what  is  practically  a 
life  position  as  teacher  in  a  lycee.  The  minister  of  education  is 


296       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

under  obligations  to  find  such  a  place  for  them.  The  number 
of  successful  applicants  is  limited  to  the  number  of  men  for 
whom  positions  of  this  kind  are  available,  hence  the  standard 
prevailing  in  the  examination  is  very  high.  The  highest 
position  that  can  be  held  by  a  teacher  who  has  a  licence  only 
is  that  of  professor  in  charge  (professeur  charge  de  cours)  in  a 
lycee.  There  are  also  many  less  desirable  positions  of  this 
kind  hi  the  colleges.  Those  holders  of  the  licence  who  cannot 
secure  positions  of  the  second  rank  may  yet  find  places  as 
assistants  (repetiteurs,  surveittants,  or  preparateurs).  Some  of 
these  ultimately  secure  'promotion,  others  'are  unable  to  rise. 
In  case  of  the  absence  of  a  professor  an  assistant  is  placed 
in  charge  of  his  classes. 

A  limited  number  of  candidates  for  positions  in  the  second- 
ary schools  receive  special  training  in  the  higher  normal 
school  (Ecole  Normale  Superieure).  By  competitive  exami- 
nation about  twenty  persons  are  selected  annually  to  whom 
scholarships  are  given  along  with  admission  to  the  normal 
school.  All  their  expenses  are  paid  while  they  are  preparing, 
first  for  the  licence  and  then  for  the  agregation.  It  requires  at 
least  five  years  to  do  this.  Partial  scholarships  are  given  to 
some  candidates.  Of  students  who  prepare  for  their  exami- 
nations in  the  provincial  universities  no  specified  amount  of 
pedagogical  training  is  required,  but  students  in  the  normal 
school  are  given  work  in  both  theoretical  pedagogy  and  prac- 
tice teaching.  The  latter  consists  of  lessons  (which  are  really 
lectures)  given  by  the  candidate  before  his  colleagues,  and  of 
at  least  three  weeks  of  work  in  the  city  lycees  under  the  super- 
vision of  competent  teachers.  In  the  modern  languages 


APPENDIX  297 

practice  teaching  is  extended  to  approximately  two  thirds 
of  a  year.  There  is  at  present  a  distinct  tendency  to  em- 
phasize the  importance  and  to  increase  the  amount  of  this 
work.  In  the  training  of  teachers  for  the  French  secondary 
schools  emphasis  is  placed  upon  accurate  and  thorough 
scholarship  in  the  subjects  to  be  taught. 

England  has  depended  more  upon  tradition  and  the 
demands  of  employers  than  upon  legislation  to  secure  the 
proper  training  of  the  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools. 
As  a  general  rule  these  teachers  are  university  graduates,  but 
there  are  many  exceptions.  "  A  man  can  obtain  work  as  soon 
as  he  leaves  school,  say  at  the  age  of  eighteen ;  on  leaving  the 
university  three  or  four  years  later  he  has  no  difficulty  in 
securing  quite  a  good  post,  especially  if  he  is  an  athlete !  "  1 
There  is  no  legal  standard  of  preparation  for  secondary  school 
teachers;  in  fact  they  are  not  required  to  be  certificated 
at  all.  This  state  of  affairs  may  be  explained  in  part  by  the 
fact  that  until  1902  the  secondary  schools  of  England,  in- 
cluding the  great  Public  Schools,  were  practically  all  under 
private  management.  Attempts  to  maintain  a  secondary 
school  teachers'  Register  under  the  authority  of  the  Board 
of  Education  (the  national  authority  in  school  affairs)  have 
thus  far  failed ;  but  the  necessity  of  having  one  is  generally 
recognized,  and  it  seems  likely  that  it  will  be  established  in 
the  near  future. 

Since  1872  the  Head  Masters'  Association  has  consistently 
urged  the  necessity  of  professional  training  for  teachers  in  the 

1  Conditions  of  Service  of  Teachers,  prepared  by  a  committee  of  the 
Incorporated  Association  of  Assistant  Masters,  p.  155. 


298   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

secondary  schools.  Several  universities  took  up  the  matter 
and  provided  opportunities  for  professional  training  either  in 
connection  with  or  following  the  university  course.  The  col- 
leges for  women  did  much  more  than  those  for  men.  In  1905 
the  Board  of  Education  provided  in  the  Regulations  for 
Secondary  Schools  that  "  when  the  Board  think  fit,  they  may, 
on  consideration  of  the  teaching  staff  as  a  whole,  require  that 
a  certain  proportion  of  all  new  appointments  shall  consist  of 
persons  who  have  gone  through  a  course  of  training  recog- 
nized by  the  Board  for  the  purpose."  l  But  until  the  enact- 
ment in  1908  of  the  following  regulations  for  the  Training  of 
Teachers  for  the  Secondary  Schools 2  no  provision  was  made 
by  the  Government  for  their  professional  training. 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Prefatory  Memorandum 

(1)  The  necessity  of  making  some  systematic  provision  for 
efficient  courses  of  professional  training  for  men  and  women 
intending  to  teach  hi  Secondary  Schools  has  been  impressed  on 
the  Board  by  several  considerations. 

(2)  In  the  first  place,  a  large  number  of  Secondary  Schools 
have  been  called  into  existence  under  the  Act  of  1902,  and  a 
still  larger  number  have  come  for  the  first  time  under  the 

1  Regulations  for  Secondary  Schools,  1909,  Art.  15. 

*  Since  the  legal  regulations  concerning  the  training  of  secondary 
teachers  in  England  and  Scotland  are  of  great  interest  as  showing  the 
recent  rapid  development  of  opinion  in  the  subject  and  the  tactful  use 
of  existing  institutions  in  the  gradual  attainment  of  the  desired  end, 
these  regulations  are  given  at  considerable  length,  and,  for  the  most 
part,  in  official  form. 


APPENDIX  299 

cognizance  of  the  Board  by  the  operation  of  that  Act.  For  the 
staffing  of  these  schools  the  available  sources  of  supply  have 
not  been  adequate.  Furthermore,  the  inspections  made  by  the 
Board  of  Education  have  in  many  schools  disclosed  faults 
which  systematic  training  would  have  done  much  to  avoid; 
and  it  is  hoped  that  so  real  a  growth  of  opinion  has  taken  place 
in  favor  of  giving  to  teachers  destined  for  Secondary  Schools  a 
technical  preparation  for  their  profession,  that  there  may  be 
some  likelihood  that  the  wider  opportunities  for  training  now 
provided  will  in  future  be  utilized. 

(3)  In  making  the  necessary  regulations  for  the  recognition 
of  training  institutions  for  Teachers  in  Secondary  Schools  the 
Board  will  regard  all  institutions,  or  departments  of  institu- 
tions, which  comply  with  Articles  i-i  i  of  these  Regulations  as 
being  qualified  for  recognition  for  the  purposes  of  Article  16 
of  the  Regulations  for  Secondary  Schools.     This  recognition 
will  not  imply  more  than  that  the  institutions  or  departments 
of  institutions  so  recognized  are  held  to  provide  a  satisfactory 
course  of  training  for  this  purpose.    The  Board  will  be  in  the 
position  to  make  Grants  from  the  Exchequer  to  such  Institu- 
tions only  as  impose  no  religious  tests,  either  on  students 
applying  for  admission  or  on  the  teaching  staff  or  on  the 
Governing  Body. 

(4)  The  Board  are  aware  that  a  great  deal  of  excellent 
training  work  is  being  carried  on  in  a  few  specially  organized 
Secondary  Schools  on  lines  which  constitute  the  school  the 
pivot  of  the  training,  and  they  are  prepared  to  recognize,  under 
suitable  conditions,  departments  of  such  schools  as  Training 
Colleges  for  Secondary  School  teachers.     This  kind  of  organi- 
zation is  at  present  in  its  experimental  stage,  and  in  most  cases 
involves  the  training  of  students  in  smaller  groups  than  is 
usual  in  Training  Colleges  of  the  established  type.     In  view  of 
these  facts  and  of  the  limited  amount  of  money  available  for 
the  purpose,  the  Board  have  been  compelled  to  confine  their 
grants  to  those  cases  of  this  kind  in  which  a  minimum  of  ten 
students  can  be  effectively  trained  on  those  lines. 


300   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

(5)  The  Board  are  not  satisfied  that  all  Training  Colleges 
for  Secondary  School  teachers  have  heretofore  insisted  on  a 
sufficiently  high  level  of  general  academical  attainment  as  a 
condition  of  training.  They  are  convinced  that  if  a  course  of 
training  is  to  be  sound  and  effective,  there  must  be  no  suspicion 
of  indifference  to  the  substantial  knowledge  which,  after  all,  is 
the  main  outfit  of  the  teacher.  The  Regulations  accordingly 
provide  that  the  course  of  training  should  be  taken  after 
graduation  or  its  equivalent,  and  shall  be  confined  to  purely 
professional  work. 

(6)  Although  a  teacher  should  never  cease  learning  more 
of  the  subject  or  subjects  he  has  to  teach,  —  this  is  indeed  a 
condition  of  good  teaching,  —  yet  at  this  stage  and  for  the  pur- 
pose here  in  view  the  student  should  be  concerned  rather  with 
methods  of  instruction  that  have  been  found  useful  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  school  curriculum,  with  problems  of  dis- 
cipline and  school  organization,  and  with  the  best  ways  of 
influencing  young  minds.  This  being  so,  the  Board  will  re- 
quire as  an  indispensable  condition  for  the  award  of  recogni- 
tion or  grant,  that  Colleges  or  Departments  should  have 
access  under  proper  conditions  to  Secondary  Schools  which  are 
thoroughly  suitable  for  demonstration  and  practice.  They 
desire  to  make  it  quite  clear  that  however  good  the  lectures 
given  on  the  theory  and  history  of  education  may  be,  they  will 
attach  the  first  importance  to  arrangements  which  will  enable 
every  student  to  see  good  teaching  at  close  quarters,  and  to 
practice  teaching  under  skilled  criticism  and  for  periods  suf- 
ficiently long  to  admit  of  the  acquisition  of  some  real  facility 
in  instructing  and  handling  classes,  and  in  drawing  up  second- 
ary school  time  tables  and  curricula.  The  Board  are  well 
aware  that  a  year's  training,  however  skillful,  cannot  insure 
the  making  of  a  good  teacher ;  but  they  are  satisfied  that 
after  a  year's  careful  study  and  practice  in  teaching  under 
supervision,  in  the  way  described,  it  should  at  least  be  possible 
for  a  teacher  to  undertake  school  work  armed  against  the 
worst  faults  of  inexperience  and  ignorance. 


APPENDIX  301 

(7)  Much  depends  upon  the  general  competence  of  those 
who  train  the  future  teacher,  and  for  that  reason  the  Regula- 
tions require  the  staff  of  recognized  institutions  to  be  ap- 
proved; but  even  more  depends  upon  their  direct  experience 
in  the  special  kind  of  teaching  for  which  their  students  are 
preparing ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  Board  require  that 
not  less  than  one  half  of  the  staff  shall  themselves  have  been 
successful  teachers  for  a  reasonable  time  in  Secondary  Schools. 
There  is,  undoubtedly,  a  great  deal  that  is  common  to  the  needs 
of  all  kinds  of  teachers ;  but  the  effective  handling  of  the  sub- 
jects and  the  pupils  of  different  types  of  Secondary  Schools 
must  obviously  call  for  familiarity  with  the  special  conditions 
of  teaching  peculiar  to  those  schools,  as  distinguished  from 
teaching  in  Elementary  Schools  on  the  one  hand  and  from 
University  teaching  on  the  other. 

(8)  The  manner  in  which  the  grants  are  to  be  calculated 
calls  for  some  explanation.     The  Regulations  provide  that 
Grants  will  be  paid  to  Colleges  in  which  the  number  of  Recog- 
nized Students  is  not  less  than  ten  at  the  rate  of  100 1.  in  respect 
of  every  complete  group  of  five  Recognized  Students,  subject 
to  the  condition  that  the  Grant  shall  not  exceed  one  half  of  the 
total  sum  which  the  Board  are  satisfied  is  paid  for  salaries  on 
account  of  services  rendered  in  respect  of  the  work  of  the 
Secondary  Training  Department.     By  indicating  in  this  way 
that  the  Grants  are  intended  to  promote  the  improvement  of 
salaries  and  of  teaching  staff,  and  that  they  should  be  supple- 
mented for  this  purpose  by  at  least  equal  amounts  derived 
from  other  sources,  the  Board  desire  to  encourage  the  em- 
ployment of  adequate  and  thoroughly  qualified  teaching  staffs. 
Thus  it  is  hoped  that  improvement  will  follow  in  cases  where  it 
is  most  necessary,  and  that  the  effectiveness  and  prestige  of 
the  institutions  will  be  increased.     It  is  certain  that,  while  the 
work  of  most  of  the  Training  Colleges  for  Secondary  School 
teachers  has  been  well  done,  yet  they  have  often  been  unable 
to  supply  themselves  with  staffs  of  sufficiently  high  standing 
and  experience  to  command  general  respect. 


302       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

(9)  The  total  Parliamentary  Grant  which  has  been  made 
available  from  the  Exchequer  in  aid  of  institutions  for  the 
training  of  teachers  for  Secondary  Schools  is  strictly  limited 
to  5000 /.  It  must,  therefore,  be  understood  that  if  in  any 
year  the  Grants,  which  will  be  payable  at  the  rates  provided 
for  by  the  Regulations,  should  amount  in  all  to  more  than 
that  sum,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  Board  in  subsequent 
years  to  reduce  those  rates  with  a  view  to  bringing  the  total 
sum  payable  within  the  prescribed  limit. 

CHAPTER  I 

General  Conditions 

i.  In  order  to  be  recognized  as  a  Training  College  under 
these  Regulations  an  institution  must  be  an  institution  or 
a  department  of  an  institution  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  instruction  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  teaching 
specially  designed  for  persons  who  are  preparing  to  become 
teachers  in  Secondary  Schools  as  defined  in  the  Regulations  of 
the  Board  of  Education  for  Secondary  Schools. 

2.  The  Training  College  course  must  be  confined  to  purely 
professional  instruction. 

3.  No  institution  can  be  recognized  unless  the  Board  are 
satisfied  from  time  to  time  as  to  the  following  particulars : 
General  management ;  adequacy,  competence,  and  salaries  of 
staff ;  courses  of  instruction  and  tests  of  proficiency ;  scale  of 
fees;  premises;  equipment. 

4.  (a)  Adequate  provision  must  be  made,  in  Secondary 
Schools  approved  by  the  Board  for  this  purpose,  for  the  in- 
struction and  practice  of  students  in  teaching  and  in  school 
organization  and  management. 

(b)  If  the  Training  College  is  a  department  of  a  Secondary 
School,  this  condition  may  be  satisfied,  provided  the  student 
has  ample  practical  experience  during  the  year  of  training  hi 
the  school  of  which  the  College  is  a  part. 


APPENDIX  303 

5.  (a)  The  principal  or  head  of  the  Training  College  or 
department  and  not  less  than  one  half  of  the  staff  employed 
in  the  professional  instruction  and  training  of  students  in  the 
Training  College  or  department  must  have  had,  as  members  of 
the  teaching  staff,  successful  experience  of  the  routine  and 
practice  of  Secondary  Schools  for  a  reasonable  period. 

(6)  At  least  one  person,  and  as  many  more  as  the  Board 
may  from  time  to  time  consider  necessary,  must  be  designated 
as  members  of  the  staff  of  the  Training  College  or  Department 
for  Secondary  Training,  and  must  give  to  their  duties  in  this 
capacity  a  proportion  of  time  adequate,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Board,  for  their  proper  discharge.  In  cases  where  the  number 
of  students  in  training  reaches  ten,  the  person  or  persons  so 
designated  must  be  engaged  either  exclusively  or  mainly  in  the 
supervision  and  direction  of  the  work  of  students  who  are 
recognized  by  the  Board  as  undergoing  an  approved  Course  of 
Training  in  accordance  with  these  Regulations. 

6.  The  course  must  extend  over  not  less  than  a  full  academi- 
cal year. 

7.  Not  less  than  two  thirds  of  the  teaching  practice  must 
be  taken  in  a  Secondary  School  or  Schools  approved  for  this 
purpose  by  the  Board.     At  least  sixty  school  days  must  be 
spent  in  contact  with  class  work,  under  proper  supervision. 

8.  As  a  rule  students  must  include  in  their  course  a  special 
study  of  the  teaching  of  one  definite  branch  of  the  curriculum 
of  a  Secondary  School.1 

9.  (a)  The  selection  of  particular  persons  for  admission  to 
a  Training  College  rests  with  the  authorities  of  the  College,  but 
the  Board  will  limit  recognition  for  the  purposes  of  these 
Regulations  to  persons  qualified  in  accordance  with  the  ensu- 
ing paragraphs  of  this  Section. 

(b)  Until  July  31,  1911,  the  Board  will  recognize  as  stu- 
dents in  Training  Colleges  approved  under  these  Regulations 

1  The  special  study  of  Modern  Languages  will  not  be  considered  ade- 
quate unless  a  period  of  study  abroad  has  been  passed,  either  before  or 
during  the  period  of  training,  under  conditions  approved  by  the  Board. 


304   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

persons  who  have  obtained  an  approved  degree  conferred 
by  some  University  of  the  United  Kingdom,  or  who  have 
obtained  an  approved  degree  conferred  by  some  other  Uni- 
versity of  recognized  standing,  or  who  have  obtained  one 
of  the  qualifications  mentioned  in  Appendix  B  to  these 
Regulations.  [See  page  308.] 

(c)  After  August  i,  191 1,1  the  Board  will  limit  recognition 
for  the  purposes  of  these  Regulations  to  students  who  have 
obtained  an  approved  degree  conferred  by  some  University  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  or  who  have  obtained  an  approved  de- 
gree conferred  by  some  other  University  of  recognized  stand- 
ing, or  wrho  have  obtained  one  of  the  qualifications  men- 
tioned in  Appendix  A  to  these  Regulations.  [See  page  307.] 

10.  If  persons  other  than  students  recognized  by  the  Board 
under  these  Regulations  are  admitted  to  a  Training  College, 
the  Board  must  be  satisfied  that  the  inclusion  of  such  Students 
does  not  affect  unfavorably  the  instruction  and  practice  of  the 
Recognized  students. 

11.  The  maximum  number  of  students,  whether  recog- 
nized or  not,  who  may  be  in  training  at  any  one  time,  will  be 
fixed  for  each  Training  College  by  the  Board  after  considera- 
tion of  the  premises,  staff,  equipment,  and  courses  of  the 
College,  and  the  character  of  the  provision  made  for  the  in- 
struction of  students  in  approved  practicing  and  demonstra- 
tion schools.2 

No  training  College  will  be  recognized  which  has  fewer  than 
three  students  in  training. 

12.  Provided  that  the  conditions  set  forth  in  Articles  i  to 
ii  of  these  Regulations  are  fulfilled,  the  Board  may  recognize 
an  institution  or  department  of  an  institution  for  the  training 

1  It  is  intended  in  due  course  to  limit  recognition  to  persons  who  have 
taken  an  approved  degree,  or  passed  examinations  equivalent  to  such 
qualification. 

2  The  Board  may  hereafter  require  as  a  condition  of  eligibility  for 
Grants  that  a  Training  College  shall  have  at  its  disposal  a  satisfactorily 
equipped  Secondary  School  to  serve  as  a  Demonstration  School. 


APPENDIX  305 

of  teachers  for  Secondary  Schools,  as  efficient,  provided  it 
applies  for  recognition,  and  whether  it  is  eligible  for  the  receipt 
of  Grants  under  Chapter  II  of  these  Regulations,  or  not.  Such 
institutions  will  on  recognition  be  placed  on  the  list  of  certified 
Training  Colleges  for  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools  which  it 
is  intended  to  issue. 


CHAPTER  H 

Conditions  for  Payment  of  Grant 

13.  Grants  will  be  paid  annually  by  the  Board  to  Training 
Colleges  which  comply  with  the  conditions  for  recognition  set 
forth  in  Chapter  I  of  these  Regulations,  and  also  with  the 
further  conditions  for  payment  of  Grant  set  forth  in  this 
Chapter. 

14.  (a)  The  Training  College  must  not  be  conducted  for 
private  profit,  and  must  not  be  farmed  out  to  the  principal  or 
to  any  other  person. 

(6)  The  Accounts  of  the  Training  College  must  be  kept  in 
the  form  prescribed  by  the  Board,  and  must  be  annually  pre- 
sented to  the  Board  after  being  duly  audited  by  a  qualified 
Public  Accountant  and  Auditor. 

15.  The  profession  of  a  particular  form  of  religious  belief  or 
attendance  at  religious  worship  must  not  be  made  a  condition 
of  the  appointment  or  continuance  in  office  of  any  member  of 
the  teaching  staff  or  of  the  governing  body  of  the  Training 
College  nor  of  the  admission  of  any  student  to  the  Training 
College. 

1 6.  No  student  may  be  refused  admission  to  the  Training 
College  except  on  reasonable  grounds. 

17.  Grants  will  be  paid  to  a  Training  College  satisfying  the 
conditions  of  this  Chapter  at  the  rate  of  100  /.  in  respect  of 
every  complete  group  of  five  Recognized  Students  who  have 
completed  an  approved  Course  of  Training  during  each  year 
ending  3ist  July,  subject  to  the  following  limitations :  — 


306       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

(a)  The  Grant  paid  to  any  College  or  Department  on  ac- 

count of  any  year  shall  not  exceed  one  half  of  the 
total  sum  which  can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  Board  to  have  been  paid  to  persons  designated 
as  members  of  the  staff  under  Article  5  (b)  of  the 
Regulations  as  salaries  on  account  of  services  ren- 
dered by  them  during  that  year  in  the  supervision 
and  direction  of  the  work  of  the  students  preparing 
to  become  Teachers  in  Secondary  Schools. 

(b)  The  Grant  paid  to  any  College  or  Department  on  ac- 

count of  any  year  shall  not  exceed  600  /. 

18.  (a)  No  Training  College  will  be  placed  on  the  list  of 
Colleges  in  receipt  of  Grant,  unless  either  (i)  at  least  ten 
Recognized  Students  completed  a  course  of  training  satis- 
factorily during  the  first  year  for  which  Grant  is  claimed,  or 
(ii)  the  Board  are  satisfied  that  the  College  had  an  average 
number  of  not  less  than  ten  Students  in  Training  during  the 
three  years  preceding  the  first  year  for  which  Grant  is  claimed. 

(b)  No  Grant  will  be  paid  to  any  Training  College  on 
account  of  a  year  ending  after  July  31,  1911,  if  the  number 
of  Recognized  Students  completing  an  approved  Course  of 
Training  falls  below  ten  in  each  of  the  three  years  immediately 
preceding  that  in  respect  of  which  the  Grant  is  claimed ;  but 
if  the  number  of  students  entered  at  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year  reaches  a  minimum  of  ten,  a  grant  will  be  pay- 
able in  respect  of  the  school  year  that  has  elapsed  in  respect 
of  those  students  who  completed  their  training  in  that  year. 

19.  In  Training  Colleges  where  both  men  and  women  are 
under  training  the  Board  may  recognize  separate  departments 
for  men  and  women  respectively,  provided  (i)  that  the  Recog- 
nized Students  of  each  sex  are  not  less  than  ten  in  number,  and 
(2)  that  a  properly  qualified  woman  is  in  special  charge  of  the 
women  students  as  principal  or  mistress  of  method. 

20.  No  individual  Student  may  be  taken  into  account  for 
more  than  one  year  in  estimating  the  Grant  payable. 

21.  If  any  of  the  requirements  of  these  Regulations  have 


APPENDIX  307 

not  been  fulfilled,  or  have  been  fulfilled  during  part  of  the  year 
only,  the  Board  may,  nevertheless,  pay  Grants  either  without 
deduction  or  with  such  deduction  as  they  may  think  fit. 

22.  If  any  question  arises  as  to  the  interpretation  of  these 
Regulations,  or  as  to  the  fulfillment  of  any  of  the  conditions  of 
Grant,  the  decision  of  the  Board  shall  be  final. 

LIST  OF  QUALIFICATIONS  OTHER  THAN  DEGREES  WHICH 
WILL  BE  ACCEPTED  AFTER  AUGUST  i,  1911,  AS  QUALI- 
FYING STUDENTS  FOR  ADMISSION  TO  TRAINING  COLLEGES 

A  Tripos  Certificate  granted  by  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge to  women,  provided  that  the  Examination  taken  was 
one  which,  if  passed  by  a  man  after  three  years'  residence, 
would  entitle  him  to  a  Degree  without  further  examination. 

A  diploma  or  certificate  showing  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Board  that  the  applicant,  if  a  woman,  has  fulfilled  all  the 
conditions  which,  if  the  University  of  Oxford  granted  degrees 
to  women,  would  entitle  her  to  a  degree  hi  that  University ;  or 
that,  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the  Delegacy  for 
Local  Examinations,  she  has  (i)  passed  the  Second  Public 
Examination  of  the  University,  or  (2)  obtained  Honors  in  the 
Oxford  University  Examination  for  Women  in  Modern 
Languages. 

A  special  Honors  Certificate  of  the  Higher  Local  Exami- 
nations (Oxford  and  Cambridge)  granted  under  the  following 
conditions :  — 

(i)  That  the  certificate  includes  at  least  a  pass  in  two  lan- 
guages (other  than  English)  and  a  pass  either  in  mathematics 
or  in  logic ;  and 

(ii)  That  the  holder  either 

(a)  has  passed  in  four  groups  or  sections,  obtaining  a  first 
or  a  second  class  in  at  least  two  of  them ;  or 

(b)  has  passed  in  three  groups  or  sections,  obtaining  a  first 
or  a  second  class  in  at  least  two  of  them,  and  holds  in  addition 
either  (i)  an  Oxford  or  a  Cambridge  Senior  Local  Certificate 


308   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

in  Honors,  including  at  least  one  subject  not  included  in  the 
three  higher  local  groups  or  sections,  or  (2)  a  Higher  Certificate 
of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Schools  Examination  Board, 
gained  in  one  year,  exclusive  of  drawing  and  music,  and 
including  at  least  one  subject  not  included  in  the  three  Higher 
Local  groups  or  sections. 


A  Tripos  Certificate  granted  by  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge to  women,  provided  that  the  Examination  taken  was 
one  which,  if  passed  by  a  man  after  three  years'  residence, 
would  entitle  him  to  a  degree  without  further  examination. 

A  diploma  or  certificate  showing  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Board  that  the  applicant,  if  a  woman,  has  fulfilled  all  the 
conditions  which,  if  the  University  of  Oxford  granted  degrees 
to  women,  would  entitle  her  to  a  degree  in  that  University ; 
or  that,  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the  Delegacy  for 
Local  Examinations,  she  has  (i)  passed  the  Second  Public 
Examination  of  the  University,  or  (2)  obtained  Honors  in  the 
Oxford  University  Examination  for  Women  in  Modern  Lan- 
guages. 

The  associateship  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  London. 

The  associateship  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Insti- 
tute. 

A  special  Honors  Certificate  of  the  Higher  Local  Exami- 
nations (Oxford  and  Cambridge)  granted  under  the  following 
conditions :  — 

(i)  That  the  certificate  includes  at  least  a  pass  in  two  lan- 
guages (other  than  English)  and  a  pass  either  in  mathematics 
or  in  logic ;  and 

(ii)  That  the  holder  either 


APPENDIX  309 

(a)  has  passed  in  four  groups  or  sections,  obtaining  a  first 
or  a  second  class  in  at  least  two  of  them ;  or 

(b)  has  passed  in  three  groups  or  sections,  obtaining  a  first 
or  a  second  class  in  at  least  two  of  them,  and  holds  in  addition 
either  (i)  an  Oxford  or  a  Cambridge  Senior  Local  Certificate 
in  Honors,  including  at  least  one  subject  not  included  in  the 
three  higher  local  groups  or  sections,  or  (2)  a  Higher  Certifi- 
cate of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Schools  Examination  Board 
gained  in  one  year,  exclusive  of  drawing  and  music  and  in- 
cluding at  least  one  subject  not  included  in  the  three  Higher 
Local  groups  or  sections. 

Many  universities,  working  entirely  independently  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  now  give  a  "  teacher's  diploma  "  upon 
the  satisfactory  completion  of  a  year's  professional  work 
following  the  university  course.  The  following  regulations 
for  this  diploma,  as  prescribed  by  the  Universities  of  London 
and  Manchester,  may  be  taken  as  typical. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON 

REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  EXAMINATION  FOR  THE  TEACHER'S 

DIPLOMA 

An  Examination  for  External  Students,  to  be  called  "  The 
Examination  for  the  Teacher's  Diploma,"  shall  be  held  once 
in  each  year ;  and  shall  commence  on  the  Second  Tuesday  in 
December. 

The  Examination  shall  be  open  to  Graduates  of  this 
University,  to  Graduates  of  other  approved  Universities,1  to 
persons  who  have  passed  all  the  Examinations  required  for 
a  degree  in  other  approved  Universities,  to  women  who  have 
obtained  a  Tripos  certificate  granted  by  the  University  of 

1  Graduates  of  other  universities  must  send  official  documentary 
evidence  of  their  graduation  along  with  their  Entry-Form  and  Fee 


310   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Cambridge,  and  to  women  who  have  obtained  certificates 
showing  that,  under  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the  Dele- 
gacy for  Local  Examinations  at  Oxford,  they  have  passed  the 
second  Public  Examination  of  that  University,  or  have 
obtained  Honors  in  the  Oxford  University  Examination  for 
Women  in  Modern  Languages. 

Every  candidate  must,  not  less  than  Nine  Weeks  before 
the  Examination,  apply  to  the  External  Registrar  for  a  Form 
of  Entry,  which  must  be  returned  not  less  than  Eight  Weeks 
before  the  Examination,  accompanied  by  the  Candidate's 
Fee. 

Every  Candidate  entering  for  this  Examination  must  pay 
a  Fee  of  Five  Pounds  to  the  External  Registrar.1  If  a  Candi- 
date withdraws  his  name  not  less  than  eight  weeks  before 
the  Examination,  the  Fee  shall  be  returned  to  him.  If  he 
fails  to  present  himself  at  the  Examination,  he  shall  be  allowed 
to  enter  for  the  next  following  Examination  in  Pedagogy  on 
payment  of  a  Fee  of  Two  Pounds  Ten  Shillings,  If  he 
retires  after  the  commencement  of  the  Examination,  or  fails 
to  pass  it,  the  full  Fee  of  Five  Pounds  shall  be  payable  upon 
every  reentry. 

Candidates  shall  be  required  to  state  such  professional 
training  and  experience  in  Teaching  as  they  may  have 
had. 

Candidates  shall  be  examined  in  the  following  subjects :  — 

I.  The  Principles  of  Education.2   (Two  Papers  including 
an  Essay.) 

1  Except  in  the  case  of  Candidates  who  entered  for  and  failed  either  to 
present  themselves  at,  or  to  pass,  the  Examination  in  the  Art,  Theory, 
and  History  of  Teaching,  previously  to  the  year  1902.     Such  candidates 
will,  for  the  present,  be  allowed  to  enter  for  any  subsequent  Examina- 
tion for  the  Teacher's  Diploma  upon  payment,  at  every  such  entry,  of  a 
Fee  of  Two  Pounds  Ten  Shillings,  provided  that  they  otherwise  comply 
with  the  current  Regulations. 

2  In  matters  of  opinion  answers  will  be  judged  according  to  the  accu- 
racy of  thought  and  expression  displayed,  and  not  with  reference  to  their 
agreement  with  the  writings  of  any  one  author  or  school  of  authors. 


APPENDIX  311 

The  Aims  of  Education  with  regard  to  the  individual 
pupil  and  the  community. 

The  Endowment  of  the  child  as  a  datum  of  the  edu- 
cational process.  The  relation  of  Development 
to  Endowment. 

The  fundamental  aspects  of  development  and  their 
interrelations. 

The  chief  stages  in  general  development;  their 
order  and  mode  of  succession  in  children  of 
different  types. 

The  function  of  the  School  in  regard  to  general  develop- 
ment with  special  reference  to  the  work  of  the 
Class-teacher. 

The  acquisition  of  Skill,  Knowledge,  and  Taste: 
the  nature  and  growth  of  the  mental  function 
involved  in  these  processes. 

Special  Psychology  of  the  instrumental  subjects 
(Reading,  Writing,  and  Number). 

The  development  of  spontaneity ;  the  forms  of 
self-expression. 

The  development  of  Conduct ;   Will ;   Character. 

The  characteristics  of  individual  children  with  regard 
to  the  foregoing. 

The  general  psychological  conditions  of  class  instruc- 
tion and  class  management. 

The  general  principles  of  method;  the  forms  of 
instruction;  the  cultivation  of  Interest  and 
Attention.  Methods  of  testing  progress. 

The  general  principles  of  class  management  ;  Order 
and  Discipline. 

Class  instruction  and  organization  as  a  means  of 
moral  development ;  the  relation  of  the  teacher 
to  individual  children. 

The  conditions  of  healthy  school  life  and  class  work; 
mental  economy  and  hygiene. 

The  organization  and  conduct  of  the  school  in  rela- 
tion to  the  work  of  the  Class-teacher. 


312       TRAINING    OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

II.  Methodology.     (One  paper.) 

Methodology;  with  special  reference  to  the  method- 
ology of  a  special  subject  or  group  of  subjects 
of  instruction.1 

III.  History  of  Education.     (One  Paper.) 

(a)  Historical  Evolution  of  Educational  Ideals. 

(b)  The  Work  and  Writings  of  Great  Teachers. 

(c)  The  Study  of  School    Systems  in  operation  at 

Home  and  Abroad. 

Special  Periods :  Writers  and  Systems  under 
(a),  (b),  (c),  to  be  varied  from  time  to  time.2 

IV.  Practical  Skill  in  Teaching. 

This  will  be  tested  by  means  of  a  lesson  to  be  given 
to  a  class  in  the  presence  of  the  Examiner  at 
some  School  in  London;  the  lesson  will,  if 
necessary,  be  followed  by  discussion.  Special 
arrangements  will  be  made  on  each  occasion. 

Candidates  will  be  required  to  prepare,  for  presenta- 
tion to  the  Examiners  on  the  first  day  of  the 
Examination,  full  teaching  notes  of  four  lessons, 
taken  from  two,  at  least,  of  the  following 
groups  of  subjects : 3  — 

1  Sufficient  choice  of  questions  will  be  afforded  to  enable  a  candidate 
to  confine  himself  to  the  methodology  of  a  single  subject  (including  the 
necessary  references  to  subjects  connected  with  it  in  the  school  curricu- 
lum). 

2  The  Special  Subjects  for  1909  will  be:  — 

Herbart:    Allgemeine  Padagogik  (any  translation). 

The  Outline  of   Educational  History  in  England  during  the 

Nineteenth  Century. 
The  Special  Subject  for  1910  will  be :  — 

The  Republic  of  Plato  and  its  bearing  on  the  development  of 

modern  educational  thought  and  practice. 
The  Special  Subject  for  1911  will  be:  — 

The  Republic  of  Plato  and  its  bearing  on  modern  educational 
thought  and  practice. 

3  The  date  on  which  these  Notes  must  be  received  by  the  External 
Registrar  will  be  given  on  the  Form  of  Entry. 


APPENDIX  313 

(a)  Language    and  Literature. 

(b)  History  and  Geography. 

(c)  Mathematics. 

(d)  Natural  History  and  Physical  Science. 
The  notes  should  indicate  (i)  the  age  of  the  pupils 

for  whom  the  lesson  is  intended;  (ii)  the 
previous  knowledge  which  they  are  assumed 
to  possess;  (iii)  the  diagrams,  maps,  apparatus, 
or  other  visible  illustrations  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  use. 

In  giving  the  lesson,  candidates  will  be  expected 
to  follow,  in  the  main,  the  course  described 
in  the  notes. 

The  Examiners  may  require  a  Candidate  to  give 
a  second  lesson  if  in  their  judgment  a  second 
lesson  be  necessary ;  in  which  case  the  Exam- 
iners shall  select  for  the  subject  of  the  lesson 
a  particular  topic  from  a  branch  or  branches  of 
knowledge  named  by  the  Candidate. 

The  Examination,  which  shall  be  both  written  and  practical, 
shall  extend  over  three  days,  and  shall  be  conducted  as 
follows :  — 

WRITTEN  EXAMINATION 
Tuesday, 

Morning.  10  to  i  |     -  . 
. ,.  .        >•     Principles  of  Education. 

Afternoon,  2  to  5  | 

Wednesday. 

Morning,  10  to  i.     Special  Methodology. 
Afternoon,  2  to  5.    History  of  Education. 

PRACTICAL  AND  ORAL  EXAMINATION 

Practical  Skill  in  Teaching  and  in  the  Management  of  a  Class. 

[This  part  of  the  Examination  will  be  held,  if  practicable,  in  the 
same  week  as  the  Written  Examination,  the  place,  and  hour 
for  holding  it  being  announced  previously  to  the  conclusion  of 
such  Written  Examination.] 


314       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Candidates  shall  not  be  approved  by  the  Examiners  unless 
they  have  shown  a  competent  knowledge  in  all  the  subjects 
of  examination,  and  have  given  satisfactory  evidence  of  practi- 
cal skill  in  teaching. 

In  the  course  of  the  second  week  following  the  conclusion 
of  the  Examination,  the  Examiners  shall  publish  the  names 
of  the  Candidates  who  have  passed,  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order,  and  shall  indicate,  by  distinguishing  marks  placed 
against  their  names,  the  Candidates  (if  any)  who  excel  in 
the  practical  or  written  parts  of  the  Examination,  or  in  both. 

A  Certificate  to  be  called  the  "  Teacher's  Diploma," 
under  the  Seal  of  the  University,  and  signed  by  the  Chancellor, 
shall  be  delivered  to  each  Candidate  who  has  passed,  after 
the  Report  of  the  Examiners  shall  have  been  approved  by 
the  Senate. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MANCHESTER 
REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  TEACHER'S  DIPLOMA 

The  Teacher's  Diploma  is  designed  to  give  a  general  course 
of  pedagogic  principles  and  practice  to  meet  the  wants  of  those 
who  design  to  become  teachers  in  schools.  It  is  primarily 
instituted  for  teachers  in  Secondary  Schools,  but  it  also  affords 
opportunities  of  studying  the  methods  and  practice  of  Pri- 
mary Schools.  It  is  recognized  by  the  Board  of  Education 
as  a  qualification  for  certificated  Teachers.  (See  Education 
Code  60  (6).1) 

The  Course  of  Training  is  planned  so  as  to  satisfy  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  Training  of 
Teachers  in  Secondary  Schools,  and  students  will  be  expected 
to  fulfill  such  requirements  relating  to  practical  work  as  the 
Board  may  from  time  to  time  impose  through  their  Regulation. 
(Candidates  should  procure  a  copy  of  these  Regulations,  price 
i  d.,  Wyman  and  Sons.) 

1  Wyman  and  Sons,  Ltd. 


APPENDIX  315 

1.  Candidates  before  receiving  the  Diploma  must  have 
graduated  or  passed  the  Final  Examination  for  a  degree  in  this 
or  some  other  University  of  the  United  Kingdom,  provided 
that  a  candidate  who  has  taken  Education  as  a  subject  for  his 
degree  may  not  receive  the  Diploma  until  he  has  presented  and 
passed  in  some  subject  other  than  Education,  not  being  a 
subject  previously  taken  by  him,  as  prescribed  for  the  Final 
Examination  for  the  degree  of  B.A.  or  B.Sc. 

2.  The  examination  for  the  Diploma  will  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  (a)  and  (b). 

(a)  Written  Examination.     Candidates  will  be  required 

to  pass  a  written  examination  in  the  fol- 
lowing subjects :  — 
(i)  The  Mental  and  Physical  Life  of  boys  and 

girls  at  school. 

(ii)  Systematic  Review  of  the  Principles  of  Educa- 
tion. 

(iii)  Portions  of  the  History  of  Education,  with 
special  books  as  prescribed. 

(iv)  Method  in  teaching  (including  the  Preparation 
of  Lessons)  and  School  Management. 

(b)  Practical  Examination.     Candidates  will  be  tested 

in  the  practice  of  Education : 
(i)  By  reports  by  the  Professors  of  Education  on 
their  work  in  teaching  during  their  period 
of  training. 

(ii)  By  teaching  before  the  Examiners  and  sub- 
mitting to  them  written  records  of  their 
work  in  Schools. 

Before  admission  to  an  examination,  candidates  will  be 
required  to  pay  a  fee  of  £2,  and  to  present  certificates  of  satis- 
factory attendance  on  the  above  subjects. 

3.  Candidates  will  be  required  to  undergo  a  Course  of 
Training  in  the  Department  of  Education  in  this  University 
(a)  for  at  least  one  year,  or  (b)  for  periods  amounting  all  to- 


316       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

gether  to  not  less  than  one  year  under  circumstances  which,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  University,  render  the  periods  at  least  equiv- 
alent to  a  continuous  year.  This  year  of  Training  must  be 
taken  at  a  date  subsequent  to  passing  the  Final  Examination 
for  a  degree  (or  the  equivalents  thereto  described  above), 
provided  that  the  Senate  shall  have  power  to  allow  a  candidate 
to  undertake  his  training  for  the  Diploma  though  he  has  not 
completed  one  of  his  courses  for  the  degree,  such  degree 
course  to  be  pursued  in  the  same  year  as  the  Diploma  course. 

4.  Candidates  who  desire  to  offer  evidence  of  special  ac- 
quaintance with  methods  of  teaching  particular  branches  of  a 
school  curriculum,  or  with  methods  of  teaching  in  any  par- 
ticular type  of  school,  will  be  afforded  opportunity  of  display- 
ing this  acquaintance  in  the  examination.     An  indication  of 
special  qualifications  for  teaching  one  or  more  such  branches 
may  be  given  in  the  Diploma. 

5.  The  prescribed  course  of  training  shall  include  attend- 
ance for  the  entire  school  day  for  a  period  amounting  to  three 
school  weeks;  this  attendance  shall  be  made  during  Univer- 
sity vacation.     Either  in  this  practice  or  in  practice  taken  dur- 
ing the  session  at  least  forty  hours'  attendance  shall  be  made  in 
an  approved  Secondary  School ;   and  candidates  who  take  the 
Diploma  for  the  special  purpose  of  teaching  in  Secondary 
Schools  must  spend  two  thirds  of  the  teaching  practice  either 
in  Secondary  Schools  or  in  the  Fielden  Demonstration  Schools. 

6.  The  examination  in  practical  work  is  held  in  May  or  June, 
and  the  written  examination   in  June.     Equal  importance 
will  attach  to  each  part  of  the  examination.     The  list  will  be 
divided  into  two  divisions,  I  and  II.    The  names  of  candidates 
who  have  attained  a  specially  high  standard  in  both  parts  of 
the  examination  may  be  marked  as  having  passed  with  dis- 
tinction. 

In  most  cases  some  observation  and  practice  teaching  are 
required  in  schools  that  are  more  or  less  under  the  control  of  the 
university  authorities.  In  other  cases  the  diploma  is  given  for 


APPENDIX  317 

theoretical  work  only.  The  Department  of  Education  of  the 
University  of  Manchester  is  the  only  one  in  England  that 
maintains  a  demonstration  and  practice  school  of  its  own. 

England  is  wide  awake  to  the  problem  of  training  teachers 
for  the  secondary  schools,  but,  with  her  usual  conservatism, 
she  is  disposed  to  proceed  cautiously  until  experience  shall 
have  given  a  basis  for  judgment. 

Scotland.  —  The  prevailing  standards  for  the  training  of 
teachers  for  the  secondary  schools  are  given  in  the  following 
extracts  from  the  Regulations  for  the  Preliminary  Education, 
Training  and  Certification  of  Teachers  for  Various  Grades  of 
Schools,  1908,  issued  by  the  Scotch  Education  Department. 

The  classification  of  schools  is  as  follows :  — 

Primary  School.  —  A  school  or  a  department  of  a  school 
giving  an  education  based  entirely  upon  English  to  pupils 
who  are,  as  a  rule,  below  the  age  of  14.  A  Primary  School 
may  contain  individual  pupils  or  small  sections  of  scholars 
who  are  being  instructed  on  the  lines  of  an  Intermediate  or 
even,  in  exceptional  circumstances,  of  a  Secondary  School. 

Intermediate  School.  —  A  school  providing  at  least  a  three- 
years  course  of  secondary  education  (including,  as  a  rule, 
instruction  in  a  language  or  languages  other  than  English) 
to  pupils  who,  on  entering,  have  reached  the  stage  of  attain- 
ment in  elementary  subjects  indicated  in  Article  29,  I,  of  the 
Code  ("  qualifying  examination  "). 

Secondary  School. — A  school  providing  at  least  a  five- 
years  course  of  secondary  education  beyond  the  qualifying 
examination  stage. 

An  Intermediate  School  should  retain  its  pupils  until 
at  least  the  age  of  15  to  1 6,  and  the  normal  attainments  of  the 
pupils  at  that  age  should  be  those  indicated  by  the  Inter- 
mediate Certificate. 


318   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

A  Secondary  School  should  retain  its  pupils  till  at  least 
the  age  of  17  to  18,  and  no  pupil  who  has  not  qualified  for  the 
award  of  some  form  of  Leaving  Certificate,  or  for  one  of  the 
alternative  Technical  or  Commercial  Certificates,  can  be 
held  to  have  completed  the  course  satisfactorily. 

Though  the  education  of  the  Intermediate  School  is  of 
the  nature  of  secondary,  as  distinguished  from  primary 
education,  the  choice  of  subjects  and  the  relative  importance 
to  be  given  to  them  at  various  stages  of  the  curriculum  may 
properly  vary  within  certain  limits  according  as  the  school 
is  one  providing  a  three-years  course  or  one  providing  a  five- 
years  course.  The  curriculum  of  each  type  of  school  should 
be  so  arranged  as  to  present,  at  the  age  at  which  the  pupils 
normally  leave,  a  certain  unity  and  completeness. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  important  that  as  between  the 
Secondary  School  and  the  various  Intermediate  Schools  of  the 
same  district  there  should  be  no  unnecessary  divergence  of 
curriculum  in  the  earlier  stages,  so  that  transference  from  the 
one  to  the  other  may  not  be  impeded. 


TEACHERS  or  HIGHER  SUBJECTS 

42.  Persons  who  at  or  before  the  date  of  these  Regulations 
(yth  June,  1906)  were  actually  serving  in  recognized  posi- 
tions in  Intermediate  and  Secondary  Schools  under  the  in- 
spection of  the  Department  will  rank  as  specially  qualified 
teachers  of  the  relative  subjects  in  terms  of  the  following 
Articles.1  But,  except  with  regard  to  such  persons,  the  De- 
partment may  at  any  time  require,  as  a  condition  of  efficiency, 
that  any  or  every  teacher  appointed  to  the  staff  of  such 

1  Up  to  July  31,  1909,  a  similar  privilege  will  be  accorded  to  all  who 
have  given  at  least  a  year's  satisfactory  service  in  such  positions.  There- 
after this  privilege  will  be  limited  to  persons  qualified  for  recognition  as 
Certificated  Teachers,  or  who  have  been  provisionally  recognized  by  the 
Department  as  Assistant  Teachers  in  Intermediate  or  Secondary  Schools, 
before  the  said  date. 


APPENDIX  319 

schools  shall  produce  evidence  of  having  been  properly  trained 
with  reference  to  the  particular  subject  he  is  to  teach. 

43.  Applicants  for  recognition  as  specially  qualified 
teachers  of  the  undermentioned  Subjects  in  Intermediate 
and  Secondary  Schools  may  or  may  not  be  holders  of  the 
General  Certificate.1  Subject  to  professional  training  and 
probation  (Articles  44  and  52),  and  subject  also  to  the  right 
of  a  Provincial  Committee  to  recommend  exceptions  in  indi- 
vidual cases,  the  following  are  the  requirements  which  will 
be  necessary  for  such  recognition :  — 

(a)  In  the  case  of  English  the  applicant  must  either  (i) 
hold  the  degree  of  an  approved  University  with  Hon- 
ors in  English;    or,  (ii)  having  taken  an  ordinary 
degree,2  produce  Certificates  showing  that,  during  his 
University  course,  he  has  given  attendance  at  the 
Ordinary  and  the  Honors  Classes  of  English  Litera- 
ture, and  at  the  Ordinary  Class  of  History,  and  has 
displayed  in  the  work  of  each  of  these  such  proficiency 
as  may,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Professor  or  Lecturer, 
be  reasonably  required  from  one  who  is  to  teach 
English  in  Intermediate  and  Secondary  Schools.    In 
addition,  whether  applying  under  (i)  or  under  (ii), 
he  must  produce  a  similar  Certificate  of  satisfactory 
attendance  and  work  in  connection  with  an  ordinary 
course  in  Geography,  extending  over  one   session.3 

(b)  In  the  case  of  any  Modern  Language  other  than 
English,  he  must,  after  obtaining  the  relative  Higher 

1  [The  General  Certificate  qualifies  for  teaching  in  Primary  Schools.] 

2  Or,  alternatively,  such  University  course  as  the  Provincial  Commit- 
tee may,  with  the  sanction  of  the  Department,  approve  as  equivalent  to 
an  ordinary  degree. 

3  Where  no  Ordinary  University  Course  of  Geography   is  available, 
the  Provincial  Committee  shall  establish  or  shall  recognize  an  Ordinary 
Course  of  Geography  outside  the  University,  and  where  no  Higher  or 
Honors  University  Course  of  Geography  is  available,  the  Provincial 
Committee  may,  if  they  see  fit,  establish  or  recognize  a  Higher  Course 
of  Geography  outside  the  University. 


320   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Grade  pass  at  the  Leaving  Certificate  Exami- 
nation, attend  University  Classes  in  the  language 
chosen  during  at  least  two  sessions,  one  of  which 
must  be  spent  in  an  Honors  Class,  and  must  obtain  a 
satisfactory  report  on  his  work  from  the  Professor  or 
Lecturer  as  in  (a).  He  must  also  submit  to  such 
further  test  (oral  or  other)  of  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage as  the  Department  may  impose,  and  must 
either  before  or  after  attending  the  University  Classes 
specified  above  —  spend  a  year  of  study,  under  con- 
ditions approved  by  the  Department,  in  some  coun- 
try in  which  the  language  in  question  is  spoken.1 
Such  year  of  study  may  form  part  of  a  curriculum 
approved  for  Students  in  Full  Training  (Article  18). 
If  the  applicant  does  not  hold  the  ordinary  degree  of 
an  approved  University,  he  must  produce  evidence  of 
having  undergone  such  course  of  University  culture 
as,  taken  along  with  his  year  of  study  abroad,  the 
Provincial  Committee  may,  with  the  sanction  of 
the  Department,  approve  as  equivalent  to  an 
ordinary  degree. 

(c)  In  the  case  of  Latin  and  Greek,  he  must  hold  the 
degree  of  an  approved  University  (see  Article  15) 
with  Honors  in  Classics. 

(d)  In  the  case  of  Mathematics,  he  must  hold  a  similar 
degree  with  Honors  in  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy,  or  a  degree  in  Pure  or  Applied  Science, 
the  standard  for  which  hi  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy  shall  have  been  accepted  by  the  Depart- 
ment as  sufficient,  and  he  must  also  have  under- 
gone an  adequate  discipline  in  the  methods  of  Ex- 
perimental Science,  testified  to  by  a  pass  in  Science 
at  the  Leaving  Certificate  Examination,  or  by  other 
evidence  satisfactory  to  the  Department. 

1  Until  further  notice  the  requirement  as  to  residence  abroad  will  not 
be  strictly  enforced. 


APPENDIX  321 

(e)  In  the  case  of  Science,  he  must  hold  a  similar  degree 
in  Pure  Science  (Physical  or  Natural)  and  must  also 
have  undergone  an  adequate  discipline  in  the  meth- 
ods of  Experimental  Science,  testified  to  as  in  (<f). 
(/)  To  meet  the  case  of  Schools  which  may  require 
specially  qualified  Teachers  of  History  or  of  Geog- 
raphy, recognition  of  special  qualification  will  be 
granted :  — 

(i)  For  History,  if  the  applicant  holds  the  degree 
of  an  approved  University  with  Honors  in 
History;  or,  alternatively,  if,  being  qualified 
for  recognition  in  English,  he  has  also  attended 
an  Honors  Course  of  History,  extending  over 
one  session,  and  can  produce  a  satisfactory 
report  on  his  work  as  in  (a). 

(ii)  For  Geography,  if  the  applicant,  being  qualified 
under  any  of  the  preceding  sections  or  under 
subsection  (i)  of  this  section,  has  attended  a 
Higher  Course  of  Geography,  extending  over 
one  session  and  has  obtained  a  satisfactory 
report  on  his  work,  as  in  (a). 

44.  Applicants  for  recognition  in  terms  of  this  Chapter,  if 
they  be  not  already  holders  of  the  General  Certificate,  must 
have  undergone  an  approved  course  of  professional  training, 
theoretical  and  practical,  extending  over  such  period  as  the 
Provincial  Committee  may  propose  and  the  Department  may 
sanction.  This  course  must  include  adequate  instruction  and 
practice  in  the  methods  of  teaching  the  particular  subject, 
or  subjects,  for  which  recognition  is  asked.  In  all  cases, 
applicants  during  the  period  of  practical  training  must  also 
receive  instruction  as  to  the  organization  and  management  of 
Intermediate  and  Secondary  Schools  in  general,  and  they  will 
be  expected  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  actual 
working  of  schools  of  this  class  in  connection  with  the  Training 
Center  to  which  they  are  attached. 


322   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

45.  The  holder  of  a  General  Certificate,  provided  he  fulfills 
the  requirements  set  forth  in  Article  43,  and  provided  his  course 
of  professional  training  has  included  training  and  instruction 
as  described  in  Article  44,  may  receive  an  indorsement  of 
qualification  to  teach  any  of  the  higher  objects  enumerated 
above.     Such  indorsement  may  be  obtained  either  on  com- 
pletion of  the  period  of  Full  Training  (Chapter  III),  or  at  any 
subsequent  time  on  fulfillment  of  the  required  conditions.1 

46.  Persons  other  than  holders  of  a  General  Certificate 
may,  with  the  approval  of  the  Provincial  Committee,  omit 
from  their  course  of  professional  training  (Article  44)  practice 
in  teaching  all  or  certain  of  the  Primary  subjects,  but  no  Cer- 
tificate granted  in  these  circumstances  will  carry  with  it  a 
qualification  as  teacher  of  Primary  Schools,  nor  will  the  holder 
be  reckoned  as  a  Certificated  Teacher  for  the  purposes  of  the 
Elementary  School  Teachers  (Superannuation)  Act. 

TEACHERS  OF  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS 

47.  Persons  who  at  or  before  the  date  of  these  Regulations 
(7th  June,  1906)  were  actually  serving  as  recognized  teachers 
of  certain  special  subjects  (cf.  Art.  37  (6)),  will  rank  as  recog- 
nized teachers  of  these  subjects  in  terms  of  this  Article.     But, 
except  with  regard  to  such  persons,  the  Department  may  at 
any  tune  require,  as  a  condition  of  recognition,  that  any  or 
every  such  teacher  shall  produce  evidence  of  having  been 
properly  trained,  with  particular  reference  to  the  subject  he 
is  to  teach.     Special  certificates  (or,  in  the  case  of  Certificated 
Teachers,  indorsements  upon  their  Certificates)  of  qualifica- 

1  Where,  in  any  individual  case,  it  can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Provincial  Committee  that  a  person  otherwise  qualified  has  been 
debarred  through  special  causes  from  fulfilling  the  precise  requirements 
specified  in  Article  43,  an  indorsement  or  some  corresponding  form  of 
recognition  may  be  granted  on  the  production  of  other  evidence  of  corre- 
sponding attainment,  together  with  evidence  of  sufficient  skill  in  teaching 
the  higher  subject  in  question,  provided  such  evidence  is  approved  as 
satisfactory  by  the  Department. 


APPENDIX  323 

tion  as  teachers  of  these  subjects  will  be  granted  by  the  De- 
partment to  the  holders  of  Diplomas  recognized  by  the 
Department  for  the  purpose,1  provided  that  the  holder  of  the 
Diploma  has  in  each  case  reached  a  certain  standard  of  general 
education,  satisfactory  to  the  Department,  before  entering 
upon  his  Diploma  course;  has  successfully  completed  such 
part  of  the  general  course  of  professional  training  for  teachers 
(Articles  19  and  22)  as  may  be  prescribed,  and  has  served  the 
period  of  probation  required  by  Article  53. 

48.  Such  Special  Certificates  will  not  confer  recognition  as  a 
Certificated  Teacher  for  the  purposes  of  the  Elementary 
School  Teachers  (Superannuation)  Act,  nor  will  they  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  qualification  for  employment  on  the  general  staff 
of  any  school  of  any  grade.  But  they  may  be  held  along  with 
the  General  Certificate  (Article  33),  and  a  holder  may  at  any 
time  qualify  for  the  award  of  a  General  Certificate  on  com- 
pleting the  prescribed  conditions. 

1  The  Diplomas  which  will  be  made  the  basis  of  a  special  qualification 
are  as  follows  :  — 

(a)  The  Diploma  of  a  Central  School  of  Art  —  for  a  special  qualifica- 
tion to  teach  Drawing ; 

(b)  The  Diploma  of  a  Central  Technical  College  or  Institute  —  for  a 
special  qualification  to  teach  any  branch  of  applied  Science  or  Technical 
Industry  to  which  the  Diploma  is  relative ; 

(c)  The  Diploma  of  a  College  of  Agriculture  —  for  a  special  qualifica- 
tion to  teach  Agriculture  or  Horticulture ; 

(d)  The  Diploma  of  a  Commercial  College — for  a  special  qualification 
to  teach  any  Commercial  subject  to  which  the  Diploma  is  relative ; 

(e)  The  Diploma  of  a  School  of  Domestic  Economy  —  for  a  special 
qualification  to  teach  any  branch  of  Domestic  Economy  to  which  the 
Diploma  is  relative ; 

(/)  The  Diploma  of  a  Physical  Training  College  —  for  a  special  quali- 
fication to  conduct  Physical  Exercises  and  School  Gymnastics ; 

(g)  Sufficient  attendance  at  a  recognized  course  of  instruction  and 
satisfactory  proof  of  craftsmanship  —  for  a  special  qualification  to  give 
instruction  in  woodwork,  iron  work,  or  other  recognized  manual  occupa- 
tion for  schools ; 

(A)  The  Diploma  of  a  University  or  of  a  recognized  Central  Institu- 
tion —  for  a  special  qualification  to  teach  Music. 


324       TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

The  institutional  means  for  the  training  of  teachers  may 
be  briefly  described  as  follows.  The  Committee  of  Council  on 
Education  in  Scotland  is  the  supreme  authority  on  educational 
affairs.  In  1905  this  Committee  provided  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  four  provincial  committees  on  the  training  of  teachers 
for  both  primary  and  secondary  schools.  These  committees 
were  established  in  connection  with  the  Universities  of  St. 
Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  Edinburgh.  The  mem- 
bers were  chosen  so  as  to  represent  not  merely  the  University 
but  all  of  the  important  educational  interests  of  the  district 
concerned.  For  example,  the  committee  organized  in  con- 
nection with  St.  Andrews  University  consisted  of  four  mem- 
bers to  be  elected  by  the  University  Court,  one  representing 
the  Dundee  Technical  Institute,  three  representing  the  School 
Board  of  Dundee,  nine  representing  various  other  school 
boards,  two  representing  the  Managers  of  the  more  important 
secondary  schools,  three  to  be  selected  by  the  members  al- 
ready mentioned,  and  finally  His  Majesty's  Chief  Inspector  of 
Schools,  who  holds  membership  without  a  V9te.  These  com- 
mittees may  provide  for  the  establishment  of  training  colleges 
in  connection  with  any  educational  institution  within  the  dis- 
trict. Denominational  colleges  may  receive  aid  from  the  Gov- 
ernment for  this  purpose,  but  they  must  submit  to  inspection 
by  Government  officials  and  must  meet  all  the  conditions 
prescribed.  These  colleges  have  joined  heartily  in  the  work. 

A  few  extracts  from  the  Minutes  of  the  Council  are  of 
particular  interest,  for  the  Scotch  system  of  training  teachers 
for  the  secondary  schools  is  especially  rich  in  suggestions  for 
the  United  States. 


APPENDIX  325 

MINUTE  or  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  COUNCIL  ON  EDUCATION 
IN  SCOTLAND,  DATED  30TH  JANUARY,  1905,  PROVIDING  FOR 
THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  COMMITTEES  FOR  THE  TRAINING 
OF  TEACHERS 

The  object  which  the  Secretary  for  Scotland  has  in  view  in 
establishing  Committees  for  the  training  of  teachers  under  the 
provisions  of  the  accompanying  Minute,  is  to  enlarge  and  im- 
prove existing  facilities  for  the  training  of  teachers. 

In  doing  so,  he  desires  at  the  same  time  to  insure  that 
that  training  shall  be  brought  into  as  close  connection  with 
the  University  organizations  as  the  attainments  of  the  stu- 
dents upon  entering  admit  of,  and  to  provide  means  whereby 
School  Boards  and  others  directly  interested  in  the  question  of 
the  supply  of  teachers  shall  be  in  a  position  to  secure  due 
consideration  for  their  views. 

The  Secretary  for  Scotland  recognizes  to  the  full  the  value 
of  the  services  rendered  to  the  country  by  various  church 
organizations,  in  the  administration  of  funds  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  the  case  of  the  existing  Training  Colleges.  The 
Minute,  therefore,  makes  no  change  necessary  in  the  position 
of  these  Colleges,  but  it  provides  a  means  whereby  transfer- 
ence of  management  to  the  newly  constituted  Committees 
may  be  easily  effected  under  adequate  guarantees  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  religious  instruction  at  present  given  in  these 
Colleges. 

Each  Committee  shall  have  power  to  provide,  whether  in 
University  Classes  or  otherwise,  courses  of  instruction  suit- 
able for  the  training  of  teachers  (including  teachers  for  Second- 
ary Schools).  These  courses  may  include,  if  the  Committee 
so  determine,  instruction  in  religious  subjects.  They  shall 
be  held  in  towns  where  a  University  or  a  part  of  a  University 
is  situated,  but  the  Committee  shall  also  have  power  to  insti- 
tute, with  the  consent  of  the  Department,  subsidiary  courses 


326       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

of  training  at  approved  centers  in  connection  with  either  a 
Secondary  or  a  Higher  Grade  School. 

Each  Committee  shall  have  power  to  appoint  officers  at 
suitable  salaries  either  for  purposes  of  instruction  or  of 
discipline,  and  to  prescribe  courses  of  studies  for  the  students 
collectively  or  for  individual  students,  as  well  as  to  make 
regulations  for  the  proper  behavior  and  conduct  of  the  stu- 
dents. 

It  shall  be  a  condition  of  Parliamentary  Grant  to  any  School 
Board  or  of  a  grant  under  any  Minute  of  the  Department  to 
any  endowed  school  that  the  School  Board  or  the  Governors, 
as  the  case  may  be,  shall  grant  to  the  Committees  instituted 
under  this  Minute  such  access  to  their  schools  and  such  facili- 
ties for  practice  in  teaching  as  may  be  agreed  upon  or  as  may, 
if  necessary,  be  determined  by  the  Department,  who  shall 
also  determine  what  payment  shall  be  made  for  the  use  of 
such  schools. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

BALFOUR,  GRAHAM,  The  Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford.  1903. 

BEIER,  ADOLPH,  Die  hohere  Schulen  in  Preussen.  Halle,  Waisen- 
haus.  1909. 

BOHM,  A.,  Bericht  iiber  die  Thatigkeit  des  Seminars.  Aus  dem 
pddagogischen  Universitdts-Seminar  zu  Jena.  Dreizehntes 
Heft. 

BOLTON,  F.  E.,  The  relation  of  the  department  of  education  to 
other  departments  in  colleges  and  universities.  Journal  of 
Pedagogy,  19:137-176. 

The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany.   Apple  ton.  1900. 

BRZOSKA,  H.  G.,  Die  Notwendigkeit  padagogischer  Seminare  auf 
der  Universitat  und  ihre  zweckmassige  Einrichtung.  Herausge- 
ben  von  Dr.  Wilhehn  Rein.  Leipsic,  Barth.  1887. 

CUBBERLEY,  E.  P.,  The  certification  of  teachers.  Fifth  Yearbook 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of  Education. 
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DEWEY,  J.,  The  relation  of  theory  to  practice  in  education.  Third 
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DEXTER,  E.  G.,  The  present  state  and  personnel  of  the  secondary 
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FARRINGTON,  F.  E.,  Practice  work  in  university  departments  of 
education.  Observation  and  Practice  Teaching  in  College  and 
University  Departments  of  Education.  Published  by  the  Na- 
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French  Secondary  Schools.    Longmans.     1910. 

327 


328       TRAINING   OF   TEACHERS   FOR   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

FINDLAY,  J.  J.,  Demonstration  schools:   their  purpose,  methods, 

results.    Educational  Times.     April,  1910. 
FRICK,  OTTO,    Das  Seminarium  Praeceptorum  aus  den  Franckes- 

chen  Stiftungen  zu  Halle.     Halle,  Waisenhaus.     1883. 
Padagogische  und  didaktische  Abhandlungen.    Halle,  Waisen- 
haus.    1883. 
FRIEDEL,    OTTO,    Zehn   Jahre    Seminararbeit.      Lehrproben    und 

Lehrgange.     Heft  66. 
FRIES,  WILHELM,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fur  das  Lehramt. 

Miinchen,  Beck.     1896.    (New  edition  in  preparation.)    The 

standard  work  on  the  subject  in  German. 
Die    padagogische    Abhandlungen    im    Gymnasialseminar. 

Lehrproben  und  Lehrgange.     Heft  88. 
Die  neue  Ordnung  fur  die  praktische  Ausbildung  der  Kandi- 

daten  des  hoheren  Lehramts  in  Preussen  vom  Marz,    1908. 

Lehrproben  und  Lehrgange.     Heft  96. 

GUHRAUER,  Dr.,  Aus  der   Praxis  der  Seminarsitzungen.    Lehr- 
proben und  Lehrgange.     Heft  96. 
HINSDALE,  B.  A.,  The  training  of  teachers  in  the  United  States,  in 

Butler's  Education  in  the  United  States.     I,  359. 
HOLMES,  M.  J.,  The  present  provision  for  the  education   and 

training  of  secondary  teachers  in  the  United  States.    Fourth 

Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study  of 

Education.     Part  I. 
JACOBS,  W.  B.,  Practice  teaching  at  Brown  University.     Published 

by  the  National  Society  of  College  Teachers  of  Education,  1909. 
JOHNSTON,  C.  H.,  Tendencies  in  college  departments  of  education. 

Educational  Review,  38  :  186. 
LANGE,  A.  F.,  The   training  of  teachers  in  secondary  schools. 

Western  Journal  of  Education,  12:  28. 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY  329 

Loos,  J.,  Die  Ausbildung  der  Kandidaten  des  hoheren  Schulamtes 
in  Osterreich  und  Deutschland  nach  ihren  hauptsachlichsten 
concreten  Gestaltungen.  Wien,  Druck  von  Karl  Gerold's 
Sohn.  1892. 

LUCKEY,  G.  W.  A.,  Professional  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers. 
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MORSCH,  H.,  Das  hohere  Lehramt  in  Deutschland  und  Osterreich. 
Leipsic,  Teubner.  1909.  An  excellent  presentation  of  the 
subject  from  many  points  of  view. 

NEFF,  K.,  Das  padagogische  Seminar.     Miinchen,  Beck.     1908. 

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Veit  u.  Comp. 

REIN,  W.,  Zur  Aufgabe  und  Stellung  der  Padagogik  an  unseren 
Universitaten.  Aus  dem  pddagogischen  Universitdts-Seminar 
zuJena.  Dreizehntes-Heft. 

RICHTER,  G.,  Zur  Frage  der  Gymnasialseminare.  Lehrproben  und 
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Professional  training  of  teachers  for  the  higher  schools  of  Ger- 
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SNEDDEN,  D.,  The  new  scheme  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  Scot- 
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330   TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

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WEGENER,  P.,  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  padagogischen  Seminar  zu 
Greifswald.  Lehrproben  und  Lehrgange.  Heft  99. 

WIESE,  L.,  Das  hohere  Schulwesen  in  Preussen.  Berlin,  Wiegandt 
und  Grieben. 

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of  Indiana  Council  of  Education.  Prepared  by  State  Superin- 
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INDEX 


Academic  training,  in  Germany,  126, 
189;  in  United  States,  202,  261,  266. 

Advantages  of  plan  for  training 
teachers,  279. 

Alabama,  209. 

Appendix,  293. 

Appointment  of  candidates,  182. 

Arkansas,  209 ;  University  of,  240. 

Austria,  293. 

Auxiliary  school,  5. 

Berlin,  112;  University  of,  151. 

Bibliography,  327. 

Board,  county  (Regierung),  19;  pro- 
vincial (Provinzialschulkollegium) , 
19,  115,  146,  173;  examining,  35; 
of  Education  in  England,  297. 

Bonn,  University  of,  153. 

Braunschweig,  180. 

Breslau,  University  of,  120,  153. 

Brown  University,  241,  242,  290. 

Brzoska,  84,  167. 

Burgerschule,  5,  27,  86,  119. 

California,  210,  231,  232,  233,  200; 
University  of,  213,  241,  242.  See 
also  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University. 

Candidates,  academic  training  of,  126, 
189;  appointment  of,  182;  assign- 
ment of,  62,  68;  character  of,  195; 
in  Probe jahr,  145;  in  seminarian 
prxceptorum,  123,  193;  qualifica- 
tions of,  35,  61,  123,  195;  profes- 
sional training  of,  61,  125,  148,  180, 
190,  202. 

Celebrations,  86,  94,  102. 

Certificate,  57;  conditional,  25,  32; 
grades  of,  25,  20,  31,  40,  56,  73; 
leaving,  12,  35;  life,  277. 

Certification  of  teachers,  for  Prussian 
schools,  20;  for  American  schools, 
207 ;  standards  of,  208,  234. 

Chicago  University,  239,  241. 


Church  and  school,  21,  23,  76,  77. 

Cincinnati  University,  239. 

Clark  University,  238. 

College,  237,  251,  266,  270,  276. 

Colorado,  213;  University  of,  241. 

Columbia  University,  238,  239,  241. 

Commission,  examining,  24,  34;  juris- 
diction of,  35. 

Commissioner  of  Education,  Report 
of,  238. 

Committee  of  Seventeen,  Report  of, 
231,  233.  234,  257. 

Conference,  00,  96,  108. 

Connecticut,  214. 

Cooperation  of  college  and  school,  270. 

Cornell  University,  238. 

Courses  in  education,  151,  193,  240. 

Criticism,  of  model  lessons,  132,  139; 
of  practice  teaching,  139,  197. 

Critkum,  85. 

Curriculum,  of  boys'  Gymnasium,  9; 
of  boys'  Real  gymnasium,  10;  of 
boys'  Oberrealschule,  1 1 ;  of  girls' 
higher  school,  13 ;  of  girls'  Gym- 
nasium, 15;  of  girls'  Realgymnasium 
16;  of  girls'  Oberrealschule,  16;  of 
Lehrerinnenseminar,  17. 

Denmark,  294. 

Departments  of  education,  237. 

Development,  lines  of,  72. 

Dewey,  264. 

Diplomas,  recognition  of,  231. 

Director  of  seminar,  120,  173,  175,  196. 

Discontinuance  of  seminar,  200. 

Dissertation,  Doctor's,  27,  29,  53. 

District  of  Columbia,  214. 

Doctor  of  philosophy,  degree  of,  21,  24, 

27,  37.  73,  too. 
Donath,  151. 


Edict  of  1810,  21.    See  also  Regula- 
tions. 


331 


332 


INDEX 


Education,  study  of,  149,  192,  240. 

Electives,  8. 

Elementary  schools,  3,  18;  kinds  of,  4. 

England,  297. 

Erlangen,  University  of,  149,  150,  154. 

Examination,  admission  to,  37;  ap- 
plication for,  36;  for  specified  posi- 
tion, 27,  29,  73 ;  general,  39 ;  leav- 
ing, 12,  57;  oral,  54;  pro  Jacidtate 
docendi  ;  24,  rules  of,  34;  second,  58; 
special  subject,  40;  state,  123,  194, 
276;  subjects  of,  25,  28,  29,  30,  32, 
38,  72;  supplementary,  31,  32,  37, 
58;  written,  72,  73;  extension,  59. 

Facullas  docendi,  24. 

Farrington,  264. 

Fees,  examination,  60;   tuition,  5. 

Fichte,  21. 

Finland,  293. 

Florida,  214. 

Fortbildungsschule,  4,  6,  18. 

France,  295. 

Francke,  115,  116,  118,  120. 

Franckesche  Sliflungen,  115,  120,  123, 

143,  174- 

Frauenanstalt,  4,  17. 

Freiburg,  University  of,  155. 

Frick,  118,  120,  132,  173,  176. 

Fries,  78,  113,  119,  120,  174,  177,  178. 

Gedike,  113. 

Gesner,  78. 

Giessen,  173;   University  of,  155. 

Girls'  schools,  4,  12,  15,  16,  17,  116. 

Gottingen,  78 ;  University  of,  156. 

Graefe,  84. 

Grants  to  schools,  281,  301,  305,  326. 

Greifswald,  University  of,  157. 

Gymnasia!  seminar,  75,  112,  115,  148, 
172,  175.  1 80. 

Gymnasium,  4,  7,  u,  13,  17,  26,  108, 
no,  113,  114,  116,  118,  119,  145, 
1 68;  curriculum  of  boys',  9;  cur- 
riculum of  girls',  15 ;  number  of,  in 
Prussia,  8. 

Halle,  77,  79,  112,  115,  120,  121;  Uni- 
versity of,  157. 
Hartman,  no. 
Harvard  University,  239,  241,  284. 


Heidelberg,  87 ;  University  of,  158. 

Herbart,  82,  88,  107,  167. 

Herbst,  81. 

Hesse,  180. 

Heyne,  78. 

Higher  schools,  4,  7. 

High  school  teachers,  qualifications  of, 

232. 

Hilfsschule,  5. 
Hofmann,  109. 

Illinois,  University  of,  238,  239. 
Impressions  of  German  system,  189. 
Indiana,  215;   University  of,  239,  241. 
Institutions   for   training  teachers,   in 

England,  299,  302  ;    in  Prussia,  75 ; 

in  Scotland,  324;   in  United  States, 

236. 
Iowa,  239 ;  University  of,  240. 

Jena,  Gymnasium  at,  173 ;  regulations 
for  seminar  and  practice  school,  92 ; 
University  of,  78,  79,  84,  91,  107, 
113,  159,  167,  168,  171. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  238. 

Jungmann,  no. 

Kansas,  216. 

Kant,  172. 

Kiel,  University  of,  160. 

Konigsberg,  82 ;  University  of,  160. 

Kramer,  81. 

Latin  school  (Latino),  116,  118,  145. 

Laws,  school,  209. 

Lehman,  no. 

Lehrerinnenseminar,  curriculum  of,  17. 

Lehrproben    und  Lehrgange,    119,    121. 

Leipsic,  107;   University  of,  no,  161, 

167,  173. 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University,  213, 

239- 

Library,  143. 
Life  certificate,  277. 
London  University,  309. 
Luckey,  237. 
Lyzeum,  17. 

Madchenschule,  4, 17 ;  curriculum  of,  13. 
Manchester  University,  314. 
Marburg,  University  of,  163. 


INDEX 


333 


Massachusetts,  236. 
Mecklenburg,  180. 
Michigan,  University  of,  238. 
Ministry,  of  education,  3,  18,  34,  123; 

of  trade  and  industry,   18. 
Minnesota,  217;  University  of,  240. 
Minutes  of  seminar  meeting,  136. 
Missouri,  University  of,  240,  241. 
MiUdschule,  4,  5,  132. 
Model  lessons,  132,  135,  139. 
Modern  language  teaching,  191. 
Monroe,  282. 
Montana,  218. 

Munich,  University  of,  149,  163. 
Miinster,  University  of,  165. 

Nebraska,  218;  University  of,  240. 

Nevada,  218;  University  of,  240. 

New  England,  233. 

New  Hampshire,  219. 

New  York,  233;    University  of,    238, 

239- 

Niemeyer,  80. 

Normal  schools,  17,  236,  239. 
North  Carolina,  220. 
North  Dakota,  220. 
Northwestern  University,  238. 
Norway,  295. 

Oberredschule,  4,  7,  n,  13,  17,  116, 
145 ;  curriculum  of  boys',  1 1 ;  cur- 
riculum of  girls',  16;  number  of,  in 
Prussia,  8. 

Oberschulkollegium,  113. 

Objections  to  plan  for  training  teachers, 
283. 

Observation,  64,  119,  132,  197,  240, 
242,  269. 

Ohio,  221 ;  University  of  (Athens), 
238;  State  University  of,  239,  241. 

Ontario,  283. 

Opinion  and  practice,  148. 

Oregon,  221;  University  of,  241. 

Pedagogical  seminar,  82,  no,  113,  148, 

149. 

Pedagogicum,  85. 
Pennsylvania,  222. 
Pensions,  186. 
Period  of  training,  in  Prussia,  180,  2or ; 

in  United  States,  259. 


Plan  for  training,  266. 

Practical     professional     training,     hi 

Prussia,  61,  195;  in  United  States, 

240,  263,  268. 
Practice  school,  86,  97,  150,  167,  168, 

169,  170,  179,  286;  regulations  for, 

at  Jena,  92. 
Practice  teaching,   64,   86,    134,   139, 

148,  168,  178,  196,  199,  240,  242. 
Praclicum,  85,  88,  95,  108,  109. 
Principal,  high  school,  271,  272. 
Private  schools,  8,  276,  280,  299,  324. 
Probejahr,  24,  27,  32,  33,  61,  67,  68, 

91,  120,  131,  135,  144,  178,  180,  200, 

202. 

Probestunden,  132,  135,  139,  140. 
Professional  standing,  183. 
Professional  training,  practical,  61, 148, 

149,  167,  180,  190,  240,  263,  268; 
theoretical,  125,  192,  202,  240,  263, 
267. 

Professor,  of  education,  238,  272 ;  title 

of,  184. 

Progymnasium,  4,  12. 
Providence  high  school,  290. 
Provincial    school   board    (Provinzial- 

schulkollegium),  19,  115,  146,  173. 
Prussian  schools,  3. 

Qualifications  of  teachers,  before  1810, 
20;  in  1831,  25;  in  1866,  28;  in 
1887,  31;  in  1890,  33;  hi  1898,  33; 
changes  in,  72;  of  high  school 
teachers,  232. 

Queens  University,  283. 

Realgymnasium,  4,  7,  n,  13,  17,  119, 
1 68;  curriculum  of  boys',  10;  cur- 
riculum of  girls',  16;  number  of,  in 
Prussia,  8. 

Realprogymnasium,  4,  12. 

Realschtde,  4,  5,  8,  12,  27,  108. 

Reformgymnasium,  4,  n. 

Reformrealgymnasium,  4,  n. 

Regulations,  for  certification  of 
teachers,  20;  for  examination  of 
teachers,  34;  for  practical  seminar 
at  Leipsic,  1 1 1 ;  for  practical  train- 
ing, 6 1 ;  for  seminar  and  practice 
school  at  Jena,  92 ;  for  training 
teachers  in  England,  298 ;  for  train- 


334 


INDEX 


ing  teachers  in  Scotland,  317;  of 
1810,  21,  148;  of  1831,  25;  of  1866, 
28;  of  1877,  31;  of  1800,  33;  of 
1898,  33- 

Rein,  88,  150,  168. 

Responsibility,  of  college  and  univer- 
sity, 251 ;  of  school  authorities,  252 ; 
of  state,  244 ;  of  teacher,  249. 

Rhode  Island,  223. 

Rostock,  University  of,  165. 

Royal  Pedagogical  Seminar,  112. 

Salaries,  in  Germany,  134,  184. 

Sallwiirk,  179. 

Saxe-Weimar,  91,  173,  180. 

Saxony,  173. 

Schiller,  173,  175. 

Scholarship  of  German  teachers,  191. 

Scttolasticum,  85. 

Schutz,  79,  113. 

Schools  of  education,  237. 

Scotland,  317. 

Secondary  schools,  American,  207. 

Seminarium  praceptorum,  see  Seminars. 

Seminarium  selectum  prceceptorum,  see 
Seminars. 

Seminarjahr,  33,  61,  62,  69,  71,  74,  91, 
123, 131, 134, 135,  141, 145,  180,  190, 
195,  202. 

Seminars,  Berlin,  112;  Gottingen,  78; 
gymnasial,  75,  112,  115,  148,  172, 
175,  180;  Halle,  79;  Jena,  84; 
Konigsberg,  82;  Leipsic,  107,  no, 
167,  173;  meetings  of,  135;  other 
modem,  143;  pedagogical,  82,  no, 
113,  148,  149,  167;  Royal  Peda- 
gogical, in  Berlin,  112;  Seminarium 
preeceptorum,  115,  118,  120,  131,  174, 
193;  Seminarium  selectum  preecep- 
torum, 117;  state,  179;  theological- 
philological-pedagogical,  76,  80 ;  uni- 
versity, 75. 

Semler,  79. 

Social  position,  187. 

South  Dakota,  223. 

Staatsexamen,  see  State  examination. 

Standards  of  certification,  208,  234. 

Standards  of  training,  256. 

Standing  of  teachers,  182 ;  financially, 
184;  professionally,  183;  socially, 
187. 


State  control  of  schools,  3,  19. 

State  examination,  123,  194,  276. 

State  seminar,  179. 

State  supervision,  275. 

Stoy,  84,  88,  167. 

Strassburg,  University  of,  165. 

Striimpell,  109. 

Studicnanstalt,  15. 

Subjects,  groups  of,  25,  29,  32,  38,  72; 
of  examination,  25,  28,  29,  30,  32, 
38,  39,  40,  72 ;  in  high  school,  207. 

Supervising  teacher,  273. 

Supervision,  state,  275. 

Supplementary    examination,    31,    32, 

37,  58- 
Sweden,  294. 
Syracuse  University,  239. 

Teacher,  sphere  of,  in  higher  schools, 

18. 

Teachers  College,  238,  239. 
Tennessee,  226. 
Test  lesson,  24,  29,  73,  132. 
Texas,  University  of,  241. 
Theological-philological-p  edagogical 

seminar,  see  Seminars. 
Theoreticum,  89,  95,  108. 
Theses,  29,  52,  67,  73;  subjects  of,  142. 
Thorndike,  233. 

Tochterschule,  see  Miidchenschuk. 
Toronto  University,  283. 
Trapp,  79,  113. 
Triennium,  academic,  25,  148. 
Tubingen,  University  of,  166. 
Tuition  fee,  5. 

University,  75,  237,  240,  241. 
University   degree,   privileges  of,    21, 

24. 
University  seminar,   75 ;    pedagogical, 

167,  168. 

University  training  shcool,  286. 
Utah,  226. 

Vermont,  227. 
Virginia,  227. 
Visiting  classes,  131. 
Vogel,  178. 
Volkelt,  no. 

Volkssckule,  4,  5,  79,  86,  88,  108,  119, 
149- 


INDEX 


335 


Von  Humboldt,  22,  82. 

Von  Zedlitz,  79,  112. 

Vorschule,  4,  7,  13,  14,  116,  132. 

Washington,  227;  University  of,  241. 
West  Virginia,  228. 
Wiese,  20,  23,  24. 


Wisconsin,  228 ;  University  of,  240,  284. 
Wolf,  77,  78,  79,  113. 
Women  teachers,  18,  34,  go. 
Wiirzburg,  University  of,  149,  166. 
Wyoming,  230;  University  of,  240. 

Ziller,  107,  109,  167. 


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Vol.  If.     Grades  V  to  VIII.    v  +  22b  pages.    $.73  net. 

MONROE,  PAUL.  A  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education.  By  Paul  Monroe, 
Ph.D.,  Professor  in  the  History  of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity. Cloth.  8vo.  x-viii+40Q  pages.  $1.23  net. 


A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS—  Continued 


MONROE,  PAUL.    A  Text-book  in  the  History  of  Education. 

Cloth,    x  xiii  +  277  pag es.    i2mo. 

A  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education.    For  the  Greek  and  Roman  Period. 

Cloth.    xiii+ j/j  pages.    8vo.    $2.23  net. 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education.  By  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Professor  of 
the  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Cloth,    izmo.     xiii '+320 pages.    $13$  net. 

Linguistic  Development  and  Education. 

Cloth.     12 mo.    xvii+ 347  pages.    $r.2j  net. 

PARK,  JOSEPH  C.  Educational  Woodworking  for  Home  and  School.  By  Joseph  C. 
Park,  State  Normal  and  Training  School,  Oswego,  N.Y. 

Cloth.    iamo.    xiii +210  pages,  illus.    $1.00  net. 

PERRY,  ARTHUR  C.  The  Management  of  a  City  School.  By  Arthur  C.  Perry,  Jr., 
Ph.D.,  Principal  of  Public  School,  No.  85,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

Cloth,    izmo.    vfii '+ 350  pages.    $r.2j  net. 

ROWE,  STUART  H.  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.  By  Dr.  Stuart  H.  Rowe, 
Professor  of  Psychology  and  the  History  of  Education,  Training  School  for  Teach- 
ers, Brooklyn,  N.Y.  Cloth.  I2mo.  vi+  211  pages.  $.QO  ntt. 

ROYCE,  JOSIAH.  Outlines  of  Psychology.  An  Elementary  Treatise  with  Some  Prac- 
tical Applications.  By  Josiah  Royce,  Professor  of  the  History  of  Philosophy  in 
Harvard  University.  Cloth.  I2tno.  xxvii  +  392  pages.  $i.qonet. 

SHAW,  EDWARD  R.    School  Hygiene.     By  the  late  Edward  R.  Shaw. 

Cloth.    vii+  255 pages,    izmo.    $f.OO  net. 

SHURTER,  EDWIN  DuBois.  The  Rhetoric  of  Oratory.  By  the  Associate  Professor 
of  Public  Speaking  in  the  University  of  Texas. 

Cloth.    323 pages,     izmo.    $i.ro  net. 

SINCLAIR,  S.  B.  and  TRACY  F.  Introductory  Educational  Psychology.  A  Book 
for  Teachers  in  Training.  Cloth.  180  pages.  $  .90  net. 

SMITH,  DAVID  E.  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics.  By  David  E.  Smith, 
Professor  of  Mathematics,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

Cloth,    xv +  312  pages,    izmo.    $f.oo  net. 

SNEDDEN  AND  ALLEN.  School  Reports  and  School  Efficiency.  By  David  S. 
Snedden,  Ph  D.,  and  William  H.  Allen,  Ph.D.  For  the  New  York  Committee  on 
Physical  Welfare  of  School  Children.  Cloth.  12 mo.  xi+ 183  pages.  $z.jo  net. 

VANDEWALKER,  NINA  C.  The  Kindergarten  in  American  Education.  By  Nina 
C.  Vandewalker,  Director  of  Kindergarten  Training  Department,  Milwaukee  State 
Normal  School.  Cloth,  xiii '+  274 pages.  Portr.,  index,  izmo.  $1.25  net. 

WARNER,  FRANCIS.  The  Study  of  Children  and  Their  School  Training.  By 
Francis  Warner.  Cloth,  xix  +  264  pages,  izmo.  $J.OO  net. 

WINTERBURN  AND  BARR.  Methods  in  Teaching.  Being  the  Stockton  Methods 
in  Elementary  Schools.  By  Mrs.  Rosa  V.  Winterburn,  of  Los  Angeles,  and 
James  A.  Barr,  Superintendent  of  Schools  at  Stockton,  Cal. 

Cloth.    xii+ 353  pages.    izmo.    $r.2j  net. 


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